
Book. 



ss TX-iAji— 

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COPYRIGRT DEPOSm 



FOOD STUDY 






I 

i 




( 1 pyrrrht by liKlcrwoDcl & Underwood, N. Y. 
) OF SlC.AR CjVXE 

The source of one of our important foods 



A Tiki, I) of Sic.ar Caxe 



FOOD STUDY 

A TEXTBOOK IN HOME ECONOMICS 
FOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



BY 



MABEL THACHER WELLMAN 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR AND HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OP 
HOME ECONOMICS IN INDIANA UNIVERSITY 



NONLREFERT 




pQlAiVAD • Q3S 



BOSTON 

LITTLE, BEOWN, AND COMPANY 

1917 



.W3S- 



/ 



Copyright^ 1917^ 
By Little, Brown, and Company. 



All rights reserved 



JAN 1 5 (917 



Setup and electrotyped by J. S. Gushing Co., Norwood, Mass. , U.S.A. 
Presswork by S. J. Parkhill & Co. , Boston, Mass. , U . S.A. 



/». 



CI,A455148 
CO nA^ 



Co 

MRS. ALICE PELOUBET NORTON 

WHOSE TEACHING HAS BEEN THE 

SOURCE OF INSPIRATION 

OF THIS BOOK 



ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

Thanks are due to John Wiley & Sons for the use of 
starch cuts from Leach's "Food Inspection and Analy- 
sis"; to Ginn & Company for the use of mold cuts from 
Conn's "Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home"; 
to the University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment 
Station for the use of illustrations of cuts of steak; to 
Walter Baker & Company for permission to use the copy- 
righted cuts of the coffee berry and cocoa bean ; to Mrs. 
Janet McKenzie Hill for the use of illustrations from 
"Cooking for Two" ; to Miss Lucy G. Allen for diagrams 
from "Table Service" ; to the Hoosier Manufacturing 
Company for floor plans ; to the Walker & Pratt Manu- 
facturing Company for diagram of a coal stove; and to 
the heirs of Miss Fannie Merritt Farmer for permission 
to use important recipes from the "Boston Cooking- 
School Cook Book." 



FOREWORD TO THE TEACHER 

Home Economics is still so new a study that no apology 
is necessary for placing another textbook in this subject 
on the market. Many of the best books which are now 
available obviously are intended for the benefit of the 
teacher rather than for the student, while others are 
little more than carefully selected collections of recipes. 
The present work is an attempt to present a manual of 
definite directions which w^ill aid the student in her ad- 
venture into the subject, but it is by no means intended 
to supersede the teacher or to furnish material which 
can be taught by one untrained in the subject. 

As in physics and chemistry, there are principles in 
cooking which are worthy of consideration, and, as in 
any science, they should be taught from an inductive 
standpoint. But, equally, no attempt at a completely 
inductive course should be made. The accumulated ex- 
periences of mankind can be used with benefit. To 
show a cake, for example, to a student who knows noth- 
ing of cooking, and let her guess the ingredients, the 
methods of combining them, and the temperature used 
in baking, and then to let her experiment until she pro- 
duced a perfect cake, might teach cooking, but the road 
would be long and arduous. On the other hand, here, 
as in other sciences, sufficient discovery to arouse interest, 



viii FOREWORD TO THE TEACHER 

to enable the pupil to question understandingly, and to 
give control of the situation, is of undoubted benefit and 
leads on naturally to research. 

Where inductive courses have failed, the reason has 
been most often that the preparatory steps have been 
omitted by the teacher, and the student has been set to 
find out something when she has no knowledge of what 
she has set out to find. Chance discoveries, of course, 
find their applications later on, but this is not education. 
The student needs to have clearly in mind the results 
looked for, before she begins an experiment. This by no 
means implies that the result itself should be known, for 
then interest is dulled. References should be looked up 
only after the practical work, or its chief value is lost. 

If it is necessary to economize on time, where com- 
parative results are to be obtained, as in making tea, the 
experiments may be divided among the class so that 
one student compares her results with those of her neigh- 
bors. This distribution of work, however, is not possible 
when preparing dishes which call for skill in handling 
or involve some special principles in combining or in 
cooking ; but there is no reason why one student may 
not prepare bean soup while her neighbor makes potato 
soup. Such a practice often helps to impress underlying 
principles. College classes have been known to finish 
their course in cooking with the idea that a special recipe 
was necessary for each kind of soup or cake, and without 
knowledge of proportions which would tell them when a 
recipe was outside the bounds of possibility. This is 
the result of cooking entirely from recipes. On the 
other hand, an error quite as bad is made when recipes 
are never used. 

The order of the topics in this book is not that of the 
conventional cook book, nor is it based on the chief food 



FOREWORD TO THE TEACHER IX 

principles, but is a logical working out of the subject and 
makes possible certain advantages in presentation, as the 
early introduction of such subjects as meals and serving. 
This gives opportunity for the economic study needed as 
a basis for household management — all too often omitted 
from courses in home economics — and also affords an 
occasion for necessary repetition of work, if skill as well as 
knowledge is to be acquired. Another excellent way to 
introduce repetition is by contests, in which, for example, 
the students not only try to see who can make the best 
bread but also are required to judge the results and 
show why one is more desirable than another. In this 
way they learn standards of perfection otherwise difficult 
to teach. Regulation "score cards" may or may not be 
used for such work. 

The laboratory notes should show clearly the results 
obtained in all experiments and should also answer all 
questions asked in the directions. Recipes may be 
written here, or better, kept in card catalog form. It is 
well to accustom the student to the handling of a cook 
book, and familiarity w4th more than one is surely de- 
sirable. 

The divisions I, II, III, and the like do not mean 
divisions of single lessons. The experiments and the 
cooking presented in each chapter can be carried out in 
a double period of an hour and a half. Following the 
laboratory work of each chapter of the text is material 
intended to be taken up in subsequent recitations. Double 
periods are not needed for recitation. If the schedule 
calls for them, part of the time may well be occupied in 
writing up note books. A double period for laboratory 
work and a single period for recitation form a unit of 
work which may be given once in a week, or twice if 
time permits. 



X FOREWORD TO THE TEACHER 

The questions at the end of the lessons are not in- 
tended to be written up in the laboratory notes, as they 
are often much too comprehensive. Neither are they 
intended to be exhaustive. Their object is to show 
the student the scope of the subject, to give definite 
material to look for in the references, and to start the 
student thinking. 

The laboratory work may be extended indefinitely by 
preparing under each section other dishes which are 
similar in principle. (See list of supplementary laboratory 
work.) For convenience in using supplies, other dishes 
can be substituted for those mentioned. In jelly-making, 
for example, crab apple and grape are the fruits given, 
one chosen as a juicy fruit requiring the addition of 
no water, the other needing water in its preparation; 
any other fruits answering these requirements may be 
substituted. Jelly-making, pickling, and preserving are 
placed first in the course, not because it is the logical 
order, but because autumn is the best time in the school 
year to obtain the necessary fruits. An attempt has also 
been made to consider the amount of skill required in 
every process. For this reason the dough and batter 
series has not been introduced directly after the first 
study of starch, but has been placed after the meat and 
vegetable work. Since a laboratory using many ovens 
becomes exceedingly warm, the roasting of meat and the 
baking of bread, cake, and pies are not left until the end 
of the course, for the least possible hot work is desirable 
at the end of the school year. 

It has not seemed desirable to explain such processes 
as how to break an egg, how to beat eggs, how to "fold" 
in the whites, how to use a rolling-pin, and all the rest. 
The teacher who shows the process can make it plainer 
than any words can do. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

FRUIT 



PAGE 



Coddled Apples ; Apple Sauce ; class experiment (Spoiling 

of Fruit) ; lesson on Fruit 1 

CHAPTER II 

CANNING FRUIT 

Canned Peaches ; class experiment (Cause of Fruit Spoiling) ; 

lesson on Molds 7 



CHAPTER ni 

JELLY 

Apple and Grape Jelly ; Trial Jelly ; Experiments and Tests 

for Jellying ; lesson on Principles of Jelly-making . . 13 

CHAPTER IV 

JELLY-MAKING 

Repeated Extractions ; class experiments (Food Preserva- 
tives) ; class work (Cucumber Pickles) ; lesson on Yeasts 
and Bacteria 19 



25 



xii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER V 

SWEET PICKLED PEACHES 

Class experiments (Micro-organisms) ; lesson on Micro- 
organisms 

CHAPTER VI 

USE OF WATER IN COOKING 

Boiled Potatoes ; Mashed Potatoes ; class experiment (Stages 

of Boiling Water) ; lesson on Potatoes .... 30 

CHAPTER VII 

USE OF WATER IN COOKING 

Boiled Eggs ; Stuffed Eggs ; class experiments (Eggs) ; lesson 

on Water 39 

CHAPTER VIII 

USE OF WATER IN COOKING 

Poached Eggs ; class experiment (Solubility of Egg White) ; 
class experiment (Correct Temperature for Poaching 
Eggs) ; lesson on Eggs 46 

CHAPTER IX 

USE OF WATER IN COOKING 

Cereal Breakfast Foods ; class experiment (Relation of Sur- 
face to Evaporation) ; Cereal with Fruit ; class experi- 
ments (Cereals) ; lesson on Cereal Breakfast Foods . 51 

CHAPTER X 

STARCH 

Apple Tapioca ; Boiled Rice ; lesson on Starch ... 56 



CONTENTS xiii 

CHAPTER XI 

EICE AND INDIAN PUDDINGS 



CHAPTER XII 

REVIEW LESSON 



PAGE 



Cost of Breakfast Foods; preparation of Rice Pudding, 
Indian Pudding, and Crisped Cereals ; lesson on Cellu- 
lose ; lesson on Mineral and Organic Salts ... 62 



Breakfast, preparation and serving; lesson on Setting the 

Table ' . . 67 

CHAPTER XIII 

TEA 

Marshmallow Wafers ; individual experiments (Green Tea) ; 

class experiments (Black Tea) ; lesson on Tea . . 74 

CHAPTER XIV 

COFFEE 

Cheese Wafers ; class experiments (Making Coffee) . . 79 

CHAPTER XV 

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 

Oatmeal Cookies ; class experiments (Making Cocoa) ; Pre- 
paring Chocolate; lesson on Cocoa, Chocolate, Condi- 
ments and Flavoring Extracts 83 

CHAPTER XVI 

FKEEZING 

Water Ices ; Sherbet ; class experiments (Freezing Mixtures) ; 
Lemon Ice ; class work (Lemon Sherbet) ; lesson on 
Freezing Mixtures 90 



xiv CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XVII 

RECEPTION 

PAGE 

Candied Fruit Peel; Marguerites; Sandwiches; lesson on 

Receptions 95 

CHAPTER XVIII 

COMBUSTION AND FUELS 

Scalloped Potatoes ; class experiments (Fuels) ; lesson on 

Combustion and Fuels 98 

CHAPTER XIX 

DRAFTS AND THE COAL RANGE 

Baked and Stuffed Potatoes ; class experiments (Drafts) ; 

lesson on Coal Stoves 104 

CHAPTER XX 

FLAME AND GAS STOVES 

Chocolate Bread Pudding; class experiments (Care of a Gas 

Stove) ; lesson on Gas Stoves ; How to Read a Gas Meter 108 

CHAPTER XXI 

RADIATION AND CONDUCTION OF HEAT 

Class experiments (Transmission of Heat) ; Scrambled Eggs 

on Toast ; lesson on Fireless Cookers .... 114 

CHAPTER XXII 

CONVECTION OF HEAT 

Class experiments (Transmission of Heat) ; Potato Salad ; 
Broiled Bacon ; lesson on Hot-water Systems ; lesson on 
Kitchen Ware . .118 



CONTENTS XV 

CHAPTER XXIII 

REVIEW LESSON 

PAGK 

Second Breakfast ; Omelets, Fried Mush and Syrup ; lesson 

on Table Manners 122 

. CHAPTER XXIV 

MEDIUM WHITE SAUCE 

Class experiments (Starch) ; White Sauce ; Creamed Chipped 

Beef on Toast ; lesson on Wheat 128 

CHAPTER XXV 

THICK WHITE SAUCE 

Salmon Croquettes ; Cheese Souffle ; lesson on Bread Flour . 132 

CHAPTER XXVI 

STARCH 

Class experiment (Comparison of Flour and Cornstarch); 
Cornstarch Mold; Chocolate Sauce; Macaroni and To- 
mato Sauce ; lesson on Cornstarch 135 

CHAPTER XXVII 

CREAMED VEGETABLES 

Class experiments (Effect of Heat on Starch) ; Peas and Car- 
, rots ; lesson on Canned Vegetables 139 

CHAPTER XXVIII 

THIN" WHITE SAUCE 

Cream Soups: Celerj^ and Potato; lesson on Classification of 

Vegetables 142 



xvi CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XXIX 

SCALLOPED VEGETABLES 

PAGE 

Class experiment (Mineral Ash in Vegetables) ; Cooking 

Cabbage or Onion ; Cream Soup ; lesson on Vegetables . 146 

CHAPTER XXX 

GREEX VEGETABLES 

Spinach; Lettuce; class experiments (Freshening of Green 
Vegetables); French Dressing; Sour Cream Dressing; 
lesson on the Amount of Food Necessary . . . 150 

CHAPTER XXXI 

SWEET-FLAVOEED VEGETABLES 

Squash ; Buttered Beets ; class experiment (Sugar Test) ; 

lesson on Cane and Beet Sugar ..... 158 

CHAPTER XXXII 

CANDIES 

Class experiment (Stages in Sugar Cooking) ; class experi- 
ment (Crystallization of Sugar) ; lesson on Carbohydrates 162 

CHAPTER XXXIII 

MEAT CAKES WITH CREAMED TUKXIPS 

Class experiment (Tests with Meat) ; class experiment 
(Structure of ]\Ieat) ; Broiled Meat Cakes ; lesson on 
Meat 168 

CHAPTER XXXIV 

TENDER MEAT 

Roast Beef ; Broiled Beefsteak and Corn Pudding ; class ex- 
periment (Cooking ]\leat) ; lesson on Cuts of Beef and 
Principles of Cooking Meat ...... 175 



CONTENTS Xvii 

CHAPTER XXXV 

BEEF STEW 

PAGE 

Class experiments (Cooking Meat) ; Beef Stew and Dump- 
lings ; class experiment (Keeping Meat Tender) ; lesson 
on Meat Inspection 179 

CHAPTER XXXVI 

LEFT-OVERS 

Southern Spoon Bread ; lesson on Proteins .... 183 
CHAPTER XXXVII 

MEAT SOUPS 

Class experiment (Soluble Contents of Meat) ; class experi- 
ment (Use of Bones in Soup) ; lesson on Meat Soups . 188 

CHAPTER XXXVIII 

GELATINE DISHES 

Lemon Jelly ; Snow Pudding ; Bavarian Cream ; class experi- 
ments (Gelatine) ; lesson on Gelatine .... 191 

CHAPTER XXXIX 

REVIEW LESSON 

Dinner ; Split-Pea Soup ; Spanish Cream ; lesson on Styles of 

Serving 194 

CHAPTER XL 

POULTRY 

Roast Chicken ; Fried Chicken ; class work (Weighing, Dress- 
ing, Trussing, Roasting, and Frying Chicken) ; lessons 
on Poultry and the Digestibility of Meat . . .198 



xviii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XLI 

^ FISH 

PAGS 

Baked Fish ; Boiled Fish Tvith Egg Sauce ; Scalloped Fish ; 
Stewed Tomato ; lesson on Composition and Digestibility 
of Fish 202 

CHAPTER XLII 

OYSTER STEW FISH CHOWDER 

Class experiment (Cooking Oysters) ; Preparation of Oyster 

Stew and Fish Chowder ; lesson on Oysters . . . 207 

CHAPTER XLIII 

REVIEW LESSON 

Dinner; Tomato Soup; Jellied Prunes; lesson on The 

Dining Room 213 

CHAPTER XLIV 

POP-OVERS 

Making Pop-overs ; class experiments (Measuring Sifted 
Flour ; White of Egg in Hot Fat) ; lesson on Flour 
Mixtures 216 

CHAPTER XLV 

APPLE FRITTERS 

Class experiment (Principle of Leavening) ; Apple Fritters; 

lesson on Leavening 220 

CHAPTER XLVI 

SOUR MILK GRIDDLECAKES 

Class experiment (Soda as a Leavening Agent) ; Sour Milk 

Griddlecakes ; lesson on Soda 222 



CONTENTS xix 

CHAPTER XLVn 

LEAVENING 



PAGE 



Sweet Milk Griddlecakes ; Sponge Cake; class experiment 

(Baking Powder) ; lesson on Baking Powders . . 226 



CHAPTER XLVIII 

MUFFINS 

Making Muffins ; class experiment (Weight of Flours) ; les- 
son on Kinds of Flour ....... 230 

CHAPTER XLIX 

CAKE 

Making a Plain Cake; Frosting; class experiment (Bread 

Flour and Pastry Flour) ; lesson on Cake-making . . 233 

CHAPTER L 

BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS 

Biscuits; Sour Milk Gingerbread; lesson on Baking-powder 

Biscuits 237 

CHAPTER LI 

SUGAR COOKIES 

Class experiments (Yeast) ; Sugar Cookies ; Ginger Snaps ; 

lesson on Yeast 240 

CHAPTER LII 

BREAD-MAKING 

Mixing and Baking Bread ; class work (Kneading) ; lesson 

on Bread and Bread-mixing 244 



XX CONTENTS 

CHAPTER LIII 

BREAD 

PAGE 

Rolls; Graham and Oatmeal Bread; class work (Parker 

House Rolls) ; lesson on Bread and Bread-baking . . 249 

CHAPTER LIV 

PIES 

Class experiments (Proportions of Fat and Liquid to Flour) ; 

Pie Crust ; Apple Pie ; lesson on Pastry .... 254 

CHAPTER LV 

DOUGHNUTS 

Class experiments (Fats) ; Doughnuts ; lesson on Fats . 257 

CHAPTER LVI 

MILK FATS 

Butter; Whipped Cream; Philadelphia Ice Cream; class ex- 
periments (Cream and Butter) ; lesson on Butter . . 262 

CHAPTER LVn 

CUSTARDS 

Custard Ice Cream ; Boiled Custard ; Baked Custard ; Frozen 

Custard ; lesson on Milk 267 

CHAPTER LVITI 

ACIDS AND MILK 

Cream of Tomato Soup ; Lemon Milk Sherbet ; class experi- 
ments (Acids and Milk) ; lesson on Milk (^Continued) . 272 



CONTENTS XXI 

CHAPTER LIX 

CURD OF MILK 

PAGE 

Cottage Cheese ; Junket Custard ; class experiments (EfPect 

of Heat on Sour Milk) ; lesson on Food for Children . 276 

CHAPTER LX 

CHEESE 

Cheese Pudding; Welsh Rabbit; class experiments (Effect 

of Extreme Heat on Cheese) ; lesson on Cheese . . 281 

CHAPTER LXI 

SALADS 

Class experiments (Emulsions) ; Salad Dressings ; lesson on 

Arrangements in the Kitchen and Dining Room . . 285 

CHAPTER LXII 

LUNCHEON 

Prepare and Serve a Luncheon ; lesson on Menu-making . 292 

APPENDIX 

Food Requirements ; Tables of Height and Weight ; Table 

of Fuel Values 297 

SUPPLEMENTARY LABORATORY LESSONS . . 313 

INDEX 315 



INTRODUCTION 

Planning meals is often thought a very simple piece 
of work, and perhaps it is comparatively so, if it is not 
necessary to consider either time or money. But people 
are beginning to believe that it is really their duty to 
consider both, and many of us have to, whether we 
would or no. 

Think, then, of all that it is necessary to know in order 
to do this work well. First, the housewife must know 
what the income is and how it is to be divided. Only 
thus can she determine what the family can afford to 
spend for food. 

Next, she must know, in order to decide what is to be 
served for dinner, what is in the market, and a great deal 
about qualities and prices. In selecting meats, it is 
necessary not only to be able to tell whether a given 
piece is good, but to know what cuts are appropriate for 
different uses. In choosing fresh fruits and vegetables, 
a knowledge of what is in season is essential for wise 
buying, since out of season they may be poor and 
yet command even higher prices than good ones when 
these are plentiful. Some knowledge of brands of canned 
and package goods is useful, but will probably have to 
be acquired locally. Even with all this information, a 
knowledge of the part played by these foods in nourish- 
ing the body, and of their relative value from this point 



xxiv INTRODUCTION 

of view, should govern the actual purchases ; and, curi- 
ously enough, these considerations have no connection 
with the price. 

It is surely necessary to know how to prepare and serve 
food in an appetizing manner. At first thought a knowl- 
edge of cooking might seem necessary for the planner only 
when she is also the cook ; but without such knowledge 
how is the manager to look out for the use of left-overs, 
the saving of fuel, the adjustment of plans to oven space, 
and above all, the amount of work required ? One meal 
which seems very much like another may involve three 
times as much work in preparation, and the real cost of 
food is not merely the price paid for it in the store, but 
also the cost of the labor required to prepare it, and of 
the fuel to cook it. 

From such consideration, it is evident that the planning 
of meals requires broad knowledge, and it is easy to see 
why food study is taking such a prominent place in school 
work, and why it involves so much more than the art of 
cookery. 



FOOD STUDY 



FRUIT 

Coddled Apples 
Apple Sauce 

A. Class Experiment. The Spoiling of Fruits. 

Put three test tubes, with corks to fit, in a pan of cold 
water and heat slowly to boiling. Empty the tubes and 
half fill with uncooked fruit cut in small pieces. 

1. Fill up the first tube with cold water, cork, and seal 
with paraffin or wax. 

2. Cover fruit in the second tube with water and boil 
for three minutes. Fill up with boiling water ; cork 
and seal. 

3. Repeat (2), but do not cork the tube. 

4. Take a tube which has not been boiled. Cook a 
little fruit separately and, when it is cooled, put it 
into the tube. Add enough of the fruit and juice to 
fill it ; cork and seal. 

Note results at the end of twenty-four and forty-eight 
hours, and after several days. Under which conditions 
does the fruit keep ? 

1 



2 FOOD STUDY 

B. Keeping Fruit from Breaking while Cooking. 

1. Pare a peach. Cook half of it in half a cup of water. 
When it is tender, add two tablespoons of sugar. 

2. Make a syrup of half a cup of water and two table- 
spoons of sugar, and cook the other half of the peach 
in it. 

Compare the results. 

C. Prepare coddled apples and apple sauce, using one 
apple. 

Coddled Apples. 

The apple may be washed and pared, and cooked whole 
or quartered and cored ; but the whole apple or the piece, 
whichever is used, should keep its shape. Therefore cook 
gently. Use one-third as much sugar as water for the 
small quantity. When shall the sugar be added? A bit 
of stick cinnamon may be cooked with the apple. 

Apple Sauce. 

Wash, pare, core, and cut up an apple. Use about one- 
third of a cup of water to an apple, and one-third as much 
sugar as water. Here the apple should not keep its shape. 
When shall the sugar be added? One-half teaspoon of 
lemon or nutmeg or cinnamon may be added. 

Fruit 

The botanist defines fruit as the seed-bearing parts of a 
plant. However, we commonly call some of the fruits 
vegetables; as, for example, tomatoes, cucumbers, and 
squash. Then there are a few vegetables, such as rhu- 
barb, which we use and think of as fruit. Only a few years 
ago it was hard to obtain fresh fruits in winter. Bananas 
could be obtained only in the larger cities, and oranges 



FRUIT 



U S Deportment of Agncofture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A C.True: Director 



R-epaned by 

C FLANGWORTHY 

Expert in Charge of Nutrition Invesbgations 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 



mnD 

fVtitein 



Fat 



mm ^m 

Carbohydrate* Ash 



Water 



iFuel Value 
I '6 So, In. Equals 
' <000 Coldries 



APPLE 

EOiBLE PORTION 



DRIED FIG 

eOlBLE PORTION 




R'otein:^^. 



Car|jr^ydrates-.14.2 



Fuel 

VALUE 



290 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Carbo 




Fuel 

VALUE: 



1475 n A LORIES 

PER POUND 



STRAWBERRY 

eaeuE portion 




Fuel 

VALUE 



D 



180 CALORICS 
PER POUND 



BANANA 

EOBLE PORTION 



Ph)tein:1.0 

sh; 0.6 Carbohydrates; 




Fuel 

VALUE 



460 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Composition of Fruits 



4 FOOD STUDY 

and lemons were very expensive. Now conditions have 
changed. Transportation is so much more rapid that with 
the development of refrigeration we can have fruit 
shipped from a distance and so are enabled to have fresh 
fruit all the year round. 

Fruit is sometimes classified from a nutritive standpoint, 
as flavor fruit and food fruit. Some fruit contains so much 
water that there is comparatively little nourishment to be 
had from it. Watermelons and strawberries, for exam- 
ple, contain more than ninety per cent water. But 
nearly all fruit has real food value. Many of the fruits 
which we think of as flavor fruits contain considerable 
nutrition. A large-sized orange will furnish as much 
nourishment as an egg, or as a banana, or as two 
apples, mainly on account of the large amount of sugar 
present. 

The flavor of different fruits is due to sugars, acids, 
and "ethereal" bodies. These ethereal bodies, or volatile 
oils, as they are called, are present in such small quantities 
that they are sometimes impossible to detect chemically, 
but it is undoubtedly due to their presence that different 
fruits have distinctive flavors. The acids present are 
known as organic acids. In fruits these are such acids as 
malic, tartaric, and citric. Some of these are burned in 
the body, just as other food is, and form carbon dioxide 
and water. They do not have to be excreted as do the 
mineral acids, and so, in the body, we need hardly con- 
sider them as acids at all. 

The salts which are present in fruits are valuable. We 
count the fruits, then, as foods which furnish alkaline 
elements, and these help in keeping the blood in proper 
condition. 

Dried fruits are, of course, more nutritious, pound for 
pound, than fresh fruits. A pound of fresh fruit will give 



FRUIT 5 

about six ounces when dried. A pound of dried fruit, then, 
will be nearly three times as nutritious as a pound of fresh 
fruit. We must take facts like these into account when 
we consider whether dried or fresh fruit is more expensive. 
We pay more for a pound of raisins than for a pound of 
grapes, but since the raisins contain so much less water we 
really are paying less for the amount of food material to be 
obtained from them. 

Fruits are particularly desirable in the diet because of 
their flavor. They may increase greatly the palatability 
of an otherwise somewhat tasteless meal. Jam on our 
bread appeals to all of us. This increased palatability 
probably means increased digestibility, so that, for this 
reason alone, we should feel justified in including fruit 
in the diet. However, the salts and acids present are 
so important that we need fruits for this reason also, 
even if their palatability does not tempt us. The salts 
and acids in some fruits have a laxative effect. Prunes 
and figs are examples of this class. Blackberries and 
peaches are not laxative. Most other fruits rank be- 
tween these two groups. 

The amount of fiber present in fruits is small compared 
with the amount in vegetables, but there is enough to 
make some varieties distinctly more easily digestible if 
cooked. Cooking softens the fruit. Fruit is also cooked 
to preserve it. Cooked, dried, and preserved fruits have 
all the advantages in the diet of fresh fruits. 

Among the fruits considered the most digestible are 
grapes, oranges, lemons, cooked apples, figs, peaches, 
strawberries, and raspberries. Some people, however, 
cannot eat strawberries. Only a little less digestible are 
raw apples, prunes, pears, apricots, bananas, and fresh 
currants. Bananas contain a good deal of starch if they 
are unripe, and so in this condition are not very digestible 



6 FOOD STUDY 

unless cooked. When they are kept until the skins are 
dark, the starch is largely changed into sugar and the fruit 
is more digestible. The " strings", sometimes left on the 
banana when it is peeled, are indigestible. As a whole, 
fruits are digestible, although some people have idiosyn- 
crasies which make a particular fruit disagree with them. 
Over-ripe or green fruit is, of course, harmful. 

Since much of our fruit is eaten raw, fruit should be 
kept as clean as possible while it is marketed. All fruits 
should be washed before being eaten, even fruits like 
bananas and oranges, the skins of which we do not eat, 
because we are apt to handle first the skin and then the 
fruit. Such fruits as apples and oranges may be washed 
and rubbed with a cloth to clean them. Fruits that have 
sticky surfaces, especially if these have dried, are harder to 
clean and need to be washed in two or three waters. It 
is better to select packages of dates or figs which are pro- 
tected from the dust, even if they cost slightly more, than 
to buy those that are exposed to dirt and flies. 

Fruit, then, should not be considered merely as a 
luxury ; and some fruit should be included in every diet. 
If it is necessary to count the pennies, choose the cheaper 
varieties, which, fortunately, are as good for us as the more 
expensive. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 293. "Use of 

Fruit as Food." 
Year Book U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Separate 610. "Raisins, 

Figs, and Other Dried Fruits and Their Use." 

Questions 

1. What is the value of fruit as food? 

2. Are these values retained in cooked and preserA'^ed fruits? 

3. Why is it better to use a silver knife in preparing fruit ? 



CANNING FRUIT 7 

4. Make a list of dried fruits in common use and their cost per 
pound. 

5. Make a list of the common fresh fruits, giving their seasons and 
usual cost when in season. 

II 

CANNING FRUIT 

Canned Peaches 

A. Class Experiment. One Cause of Fruit Spoiling. 
Take a piece of bread, moisten it with water, and leave 

it exposed upon a plate during the lesson. Then cover 
with a saucer ; leave for two days. If possible, examine 
under a miscroscope. 

B. To Can a Jar of Peaches. 

In canning fruit, use a fourth to a third of the weight of 
the fruit in sugar and from two and a half to three cups of 
water for each pound of sugar. Make a syrup by boiling 
the sugar and water together for three to five minutes. 
Scald the peaches by dipping in boiling water long enough 
to loosen the skin ; peel, cut in halves, and remove the 
stones. Then, cook the fruit in the syrup. Often, only 
part of the fruit is cooked at a time, so that there need not 
be an excess of the syrup. While the peaches are cooking, 
sterilize a jar and cover, as the test tubes were sterilized 
in the last lesson. When the peaches are done, place the 
jar either in hot water or on a cloth wrung out of hot water. 
Fill the jar with fruit and pour in syrup until it overflows. 
If there is not enough syrup, add boiling water. As 
quickly as possible, put on a rubber and screw on the 
cover. When the jar is cold, screw the cover as tight as 
possible, being sure that it is air tight. 



8 FOOD STUDY 

C. Another Method of Canning. 

Fill a jar with peaches, cut in half and stoned, within 
one inch of the top. Make a syrup and pour over the 
fruit. Adjust the rubber, screw cover on lightly or adjust 
top without clamping, and place the jar in a moderate 
oven or in a steamer. Cook till the fruit appears clear and 
waxy. Then remove from the oven and tighten the cover. 

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of these two 
methods of canning. 

Molds 
(One Cause of the Spoiling of Food) 

Molds are so well known to everyone that it is surprising 
to learn that there is no such botanical classification. All 
plants that do not contain chlorophyll, the coloring matter 
which makes an ordinary plant green, are called colorless 
plants or fungi. The fungi include mushrooms and toad- 
stools, but of more interest to the housekeeper are molds, 
yeasts, and bacteria. All these are plants which feed on 
organic food and so may be found living on any of our 
foods that are not properly taken care of. • 

While nearly everyone recognizes molds at sight, few 
have looked at them closely enough to realize what really 
beautiful plants they are. When they begin growing, 
they appear at first as soft, fluffy masses which are made 
up of a tangle of much-branched threads. Each thread, 
called a mycelium, looks white as it is seen ordinarily, 
but appears nearly colorless under a microscope. When 
the mold is older, perhaps after two days, it may show a 
color, blue, green, brown, black, red, or pink, each color 
marking a different variety of mold. The color is due to 
the so-called spores, which are reproductive bodies and 
which, if they contained nutritive material, would be seeds. 



MOLDS 



Each different species of mold has a different way of form- 
ing spores. 

Perhaps the most common household mold, one that is 
almost always found on moldy bread, is penicillium. This 
is a blue mold ; that is, at the time of spore formation, it 
becomes blue, or 
bluish-green. This 
color is due to the 
color of the spores 
themselves. When 
the mold is a day 
or two old, the my- 
celium sends up ver- 
tical threads which 
soon divide into 
many little 
branches. Then, 
each branch begins 
to divide by ring- 
like constrictions as 
if it were trying to 
make beads of itself, 
until, finally, the 
branch is nothing 
more than a string 
of little round balls, 
each of which is a 
spore. These spores 

are so light that a breath of wind blows them away, 
and they float off in the air in search of new food 
material. 

Mucor, another mold commonly found on bread, is 
coarser than penicillium, so that the threads are seen more 
easily. When it is ready to form spores, the vertical 




From Conn's^" Bacteria, Yeasts, 
and Molds In the Home." 



Penicillium, Common Mold, as seen 
under the microscope 



10 



FOOD STUDY 



threads, instead of branching, form on their ends small 
round knobs or sacs, and inside these balls are formed 
thousands of spores, which, when the sac bursts, are sown 
broadcast. These knobs on the mold look like small 
black specks. Another mold, aspergillus, instead of form- 
ing the spores inside the sac, forms them as beads on the 
outside. 

During the process of 
growth, all these molds 
may send their branch- 
ing threads deep down 
into the food on which 

they are growing so that ^^i-^^lA\X^^^=^J) ^[Z>ro $ 

more than the surface 








Spores In an 
older colony 



From Conn's " Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds In the Home." 



Spores of Penicillium 
Sprouting 



Growth from Two Spores, 
Two Days Later 



may be affected. As a result of their growth, they soon 
change not only the appearance of the food, but the flavor 
and odor as well. If the mold is allowed to go on growing, 
the food may be entirely spoiled. On the other hand, some 
molds produce delicious flavors, and many of the distinc- 
tive flavors of our different cheeses are produced in this 
way. Fruits are particularly subject to decay as a result 
of mold action. If the skin of fruit is broken, the molds 



MOLDS 



11 



have an especially good chance to get at the food material 
inside and begin the process of decay. 

A tempera- 
ture as hot as 
boiling, or even 
a little lower, 
will soon kill a 
plant, and 
molds are no ex- 
ception to this 
rule. When 
fruit is canned, 
then, it is boiled 
not so much to 
cook the fruit, 
as to be sure 




From Conn's " Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home." 
MUCOR, ANOTHER MOLD FOUND ON BrEAD 



that it contains no live spores; and then it must be 
put away air tight so that no new spores can blow in. 



o_o 




a' d' c' d' e 

From Conn's " Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds In the Home." 

Aspergillus, showing Mycelium and Spore Clusters 



12 FOOD STUDY 

This is one of the things accomplished in canning, al- 
though the plants to be guarded against may be bacteria 
and yeasts as well as molds. 

References 

Conn. "Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home." Section I, 

Molds. 
Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home. "The Preservation of 

Food in the Home," Part I. 
U. S. Farmers' Bidletin No. 426. "Canning Peaches on the Farm." 
U. S. Farmers' Bulletin No. 359. "Canning Vegetables in the 

Home." 
U. S. Farmers' Bulletin No. 203. "Canned Fruits, Preserves, and 

Jellies." 
Ohio State University Extension Bulletin, Vol. VI, Supplement 2, 

No. 2. "The Canning of Fruits and Vegetables." 

Questions 

1. After sterilizing, why must the fruit be kept covered and air 
tight? 

2. After a jar is sterilized why should it not be wiped out with the 
dish cloth ? Why must care be taken not to touch the inside of the 
jar with the fingers ? 

3. Why is the rubber dipped in boiling water, and why is it not 
boiled with the jar and cover ? 

4. How can the jar be tested before using? If leakage is due to a 
poorly made jar and not to a poor rubber, what uses may be made of 
the jar? 

5. Describe the different methods of canning. 

6. How can a jar that sticks be opened ? 

7. What different styles of cans are commonly used ? Discuss the 
advantages of each kind. 



JELLY 13 

III 
JELLY 

Apple and Grape Jelly 

A. Trial Jelly. 

Place in saucepans one-half cup of crab apples and one- 
half cup of pears or peaches, cutting them into pieces. 
Just cover with water, later adding more if necessary. 
Cover and boil, until fruit is soft and will mash easily. 
Make a jelly bag out of double cheesecloth by folding and 
sewing it in the shape of a cornucopia; and, when the 
fruit is done, allow it to drip through the bag, at first 
without squeezing. Examine juice, then squeeze the 
remainder through and note the difference. 

1 . Place in glass cups one teaspoon of each juice obtained, 
and add an equal amount of alcohol. Let it stand 
five minutes. Observe the pectin, the substance 
which furnishes the thickening for jelly. Compare 
the amounts found. 

2. Now try to make jelly out of the rest of the two ex- 
tracts by adding to each an amount of sugar equal to 
three-fourths of the amount of the juice, and boiling 
until it is determined whether the mixture will "jell." 

Tests for jellying : 

Place a few drops of jelly on a cold plate and put in a 
cold place. When it is done the drops should harden over 
the surface and wrinkle when scraped with a knife or 
spoon. While making the test, remove the jelly from stove 
to prevent o\^r-cooking. 

Perhaps the best, because the quickest, test is to allow 
a little of the juice to drop from the spoon. When the 
mixture is done, these drops should jelly and break off. 



14 



FOOD STUDY 



US Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experment Stations 

ACTruetDinactor 



FVeporecf by 

CFLANGWORTHY 

Expert in Change of Nutrit'on Investigations 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 



oniD ^^ mm ^^ oiinD 

Protein Fat Carbohydrate* Ash Water 



GRAPES 

ZaBLE PORTION 



RAISINS 

EDIBLE PORTION 




Water: 774- 



FVotein^.3 

FatTTe 

Ash; 0.5 



. Fuel Value 
16 Sq In. Equals 
1000 Caloriea 



:2.6 



Carbo- 
hydrates:l9.2 



GRAPE JUICE 

UNFERME-NTED 



^50 CALDHltS 
PCH POUND 



CANNED 
FRUIT 

W ater^77£ 





ites:76.1 



Ash: 3.4 



1605 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Carbo- 
hydrat!es:74- 

:^h:0.2 



FRUIT 

JELLY 

Water: 21.0 



150 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Carbo 
hydrates 



FuEL vALUt hydrates: 21.1. 

^15 CALORIES 
PER POUND 




1,455 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Composition of Fruits and Fruit Products 



PRINCIPLES OF JELLY-MAKING 15 

B. To Make Jelly. 

Make grape jelly, using one cup of material. The 
grapes should be picked over and washed before being put 
into the saucepan. It is not necessary to add more water. 
After the sugar is added to the juice, remove any scum that 
forms. Sterilize the jelly glasses before filling. When 
the jelly has hardened, cover with melted paraflan. 

Principles of Jelly-Making 

Because fruit juices differ so much in their composition, 
it is impossible to give general directions sufficiently exact 
always to insure a perfect jelly. In fact, perfect jelly is 
rather seldom made. To be ideal it should not only be 
beautifully colored and transparent, but so tender that it 
cuts easily, and firm enough to keep its shape, but not so 
firm that it does not quiver. 

In order to make jelly, fruit juices must contain two 
substances, acid and pectin, and these should be present in 
proper proportion. When fruit is cooked, pectin is formed 
by the action of water and heat on a substance called 
pectose which is present in the raw fruit. This pectose is 
closely related to cellulose ^ and probably is closely asso- 
ciated with it in the ceh walls of the fruit. It is absolutely 
unlike cellulose, however, in its property of being affected 
by boiling water. The pectin which is obtained from the 
pectose is the substance which gives texture to our jellies. 
It is possible to make jelly by great concentration without 
the addition of any sugar at all to the fruit juice, but the 
jelly that is formed is tough and gummy and not palatable, 
as well as being much less in amount than is produced 
ordinarily. The addition of sugar in the presence of the 

1 Cellulose is the chief substance of which the cell-walls of 
plants are composed. 



16 FOOD STUDY 

right amount of acid seems to precipitate the pectin and 
make the jelly set. 

Not only does one fruit differ from another in the amount 
of these two substances which it contains, but different 
lots of the same kind of fruit may differ materially. As 
fruit ripens it contains less acid, and less pectin as well, 
and over-ripe fruit may fail to jelly at all. Fruit that is 
not fully ripe is much safer to use than that which is over- 
ripe. Some fruits contain too much acid, unless they are 
diluted with water, but it is quite possible to add so much 
water that there is neither enough pectin nor enough acid 
present. As a rule, very juicy fruits need have only 
sufficient water added to prevent burning. When they 
are soft enough to mash easily, the whole is transferred 
to a cheesecloth bag wrung out of hot water, and the juice 
is allowed to drip through. If the pulp is squeezed, the 
resulting juice is not so clear, but the flavor is not changed. 
Less juicy fruits must be covered with water while they 
are cooked. The alcohol test for pectin may be relied 
upon to tell whether the proper concentration is obtained. 

The amount of sugar used, like the water, varies with 
the kind of fruit. It is better . to err on the side of 
using too little, rather than too much. Jelly made from 
currants and grapes that are rather green may have as 
much as one part of sugar to one part of juice, but, in 
general, three-quarters of the amount of the juice is the 
right proportion of sugar. If at any time the alcohol test 
does not show plenty of pectin, lessen the amount of sugar. 
Too much sugar not only will give a jelly which is very 
sweet, but may give one that is syrupy. The amount of 
acidity can, perhaps, be as well judged by taste as in any 
other way. Before the sugar is added, the fruit juice 
should be distinctly tart. 

Jelly can be made from fruits that are lacking in acid 



PRINCIPLES OF JELLY-MAKING 17 

by the addition of some acid of vegetable origin, such as 
tartaric or citric. This does not ahvays improve the 
flavor. The acid is commonly added by stewing with 
such fruits some other fruit which will supply the lack- 
ing acid. 

Most housekeepers do not realize that if fruit is allowed 
to drip and is not squeezed through the jelly bag, the pulp 
may be returned to the kettle and boiled with more water, 
which gives additional extractions. The last should be 
concentrated until the alcohol test shows the right pro- 
portion of pectin. The first extract is usually made into 
jelly by itself, because it has the finest flavor, while the 
subsequent extractions are worked up together. Some- 
times even a fifth extraction, if it contains sufficient 
pectin to make it worth while, can be made. 

The time necessary for making jelly differs with differ- 
ent fruits, with the amounts of pectin and acid present, 
and with the proportion of sugar used. The jelly, however, 
should be made as quickly as possible. If the fruit is 
allowed to simmer, too long heating of the pectin with the 
acid may entirely destroy this substance. For this reason 
the sugar is heated before it is added to the juice ; if it 
cools off the mixture, the whole must be cooked a longer 
time. 

There are three ways of making jelly. In one, the 
sugar is added at once to the fruit juice ; in another, the 
fruit juice is boiled for sometime before the sugar is put in ; 
while in the third, it is put in when the fruit juice has 
cooked about half the total time necessary for making the 
jefly. Probably the third of these methods is the best. 

After the jelly has hardened, it maybe covered in the old- 
fashioned way by cutting a piece of paper which will just 
fit into the top of the jelly glass, and dipping it into alco- 
hol or brandy, placing this directly on the jelly, and then 



18 FOOD STUDY 

covering the top of the glass with another piece of paper 
large enough to tie or paste down. The alcohol is used to 
prevent the growth of molds, spores of which may have 
settled on the surface while the jelly was cooling and form- 
ing. The outer piece of paper is used to prevent the access 
of fresh spores and to lessen evaporation. A somewhat 
easier method is to pour a layer of melted paraffin over the 
top of the jelly. The paraffin should be hot, so as to kill 
any germs which may be present. If, in cooling, the 
paraffin shrinks from the side, leaving a crack between it 
and the glass, more paraffin should be poured in. 

Jelly keeps best in a cool, dry place. Since the color 
of fruit sometimes fades, it is well to keep jellies and fruits 
where they are not exposed to too much light. 

References 

Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home. Vol. 1, No. 15. 

"Principles of Jelly-Making." 
U. S. Farmers' Bulletin No. 203. ''Canned Fruits, Preserves, 

and Jellies." 
U. S. Farmers' Bulletin No. 388. "Jelly and Jelly Making." 

Questions 

1. Why should not saucepans or spoons made of aluminum, or tin, 
be used in cooking fruit ? 

2. Why should jelly bags be dipped into hot water before being 
used? 

3. Why are jelly glasses put in hot water, or on a cloth wet in hot 
water before filling ? 

4. Why, in jelly-making, is fruit not quite ripe preferred to fruit 
over-ripe ? 

5. Why is jelly covered after making ? 

6. Where is it best to store jelly for keeping ? 

7. Make a list of fruits which are good for jelly-making and star 
those that are so juicy as to require no water added in the making. 



JELLY-MAKING 19 

8. Make a list of combinations of fruits that would make good 
jelly. 

9. Compare the cost of the canned fruit and jelly made in the 
laboratory or at home with that of the commercial products. 



IV 

a 

JELLY-MAKING {continued) 

A. Repeated Extractions of Juice for Jelly- 
Making. 

Use sour apples or quinces. 

1. Cut fruit in small pieces, without peeling or removing 
seeds. Place one cup of fruit in a kettle, cover with 
water, and cook until the fruit can be mashed easily. 
Strain juice through a jelly bag, allowing it to drip 
through without squeezing the bag. Reserve the 
pulp for a second extraction. Test one teaspoon of 
the juice for pectin. Keep the juice for jelly-making, 
marking it "Extraction L" 

2. Add water to the pulp reserved in (1) and proceed as 
before. Test one teaspoon of the juice for pectin. 
Reserve the rest of the juice. Extraction II, for jelly- 
making. 

3. Make a third extraction. Again test one teaspoon 
for pectin. Reserve this third extraction for jelly- 
making. 

B. Jelly from These Extractions. 

1. Make jelly from Extraction I, using : 

a. Three-fourths as much sugar as juice. 
h. Equal parts of sugar and juice. 



20 FOOD STUDY 

2. Boil Extractions II and III together rapidly, until the 
resulting juice approximates the richness of Ex- 
traction I. (This may be tested by alcohol, by the 
color and taste.) Measure. Make jelly, using pro- 
portion of sugar to juice that is found to give the 
best results. 

C. Class Experiments. Food Preservatives. 
Sterilize small bottles or test tubes. 

1. Place a piece of uncooked fruit in each. 

a. Cover fruit with brine. 

b. Cover fruit with a fifty per cent solution of sugar. 

c. Cover fruit with a ten per cent solution of sugar. 

d. Cover fruit with water and add ground cinna- 
mon, clove, or mustard. 

e. Cover fruit with water and add allspice or 
nutmeg. 

/. Cover fruit with vinegar. 

g. Cover fruit with oil. 

h. Cover fruit with alcohol. 

2. Allow the tubes to stand for several days and ex- 
amine from time to time until it is determined which 
substances act as preservatives. 

D. Class Work. Prepare Cucumber Pickles. 

Make unripe cucumber pickles, using one-fourth of a 
cup of cucumbers. 

Wipe about a dozen small, unripe cucumbers and cover 
them with brine made by dissolving one tablespoon of salt 
to a cup of boiling water. After three days, drain off the 
brine, reheat it to boiling, and again pour it over the 
pickles. After a second three days, drain the cucumbers, 
cover them with boiling water in which a salt spoon of alum 
has been dissolved for every cup of water used. Allow 
them to stand for six hours, then remove them from the 



YEASTS AND BACTERIA 21 

alum water, and cook for ten minutes in a part of the fol- 
lowing mixture heated to boiling : 

1 pint vinegar | tbsp. allspice berries 

I red pepper | tbsp. whole cloves 

Pack the cooked pickles in a jar and strain the rest of the 
mixture over them. 

Yeasts and Bacteria 

As has already been said, yeasts as well as molds belong 
to the colorless plants and fungi. The yeast which is 
used in making bread is a collection of thousands of tiny 
yeast plants, each of which is too small to be seen without 
the aid of a microscope. These plants are even less like 
ordinary plants than are the molds ; they consist merely 
of a single cell which appears, under the microscope, as a 
colorless oval. These yeast plants are so small and light 
that, like the spores of the molds, they float about in the air. 

Fruits preserved in sugar are especially apt to undergo a 
change which, as can be seen at once, is not due to mold 
growth. This is the action that takes place when preserves 
" work " or ferment, and it may occur also in jellies or syrups. 
Anything which contains sugar and water may show this 
change. The change is characterized by a sharp, pungent 
taste, and at some stages by the formation of bubbles 
through the liquid. Whenever these phenomena occur, 
it is a sign that growing yeasts are present. For yeasts, 
when they grow, are able to break up the sugar which is 
present and change it partly into alcohol, which gives the 
stinging taste, and partly into a gas called carbon dioxide, 
the escape of which through the liquid makes the bubbles. 

While yeasts are producing these results, they are mul- 
tiplying rapidly by a method called budding. In this 



22 FOOD STUDY 

way new cells are formed which appear first as very tiny 
buds on the sides of the first cells and gradually grow larger 
and larger until finally they separate into independent 
cells. When active fermentation is going on, the yeast 
present is always found to be in this growing state. If, 
however, conditions are unfavorable, some yeast plants 
can form within each cell a number of spores, each of 
which is capable of developing again into a new plant. 
This spore formation usually happens if there is sufficient 
moisture present, but not enough food to produce growth. 
The air may be laden with these spores and even with 
some of the yeast cells themselves, as well as with the 
spores of molds. 

Other micro-organisms carried by the air are called 
bacteria. They are as simple in structure as the yeasts, 
and like them consist of single cells. They may, however, 
have three distinct shapes. Some are like little rods and 
are called bacilli (a bacillus, for a single one), others are 
like spheres and are called cocci, the third variety is spiral 
and is named spirilla (in the singular, spirillum). But 
all these, no matter what shape they may be, reproduce 
in the same way, and it is this method of reproduction 
which distinguishes them from the yeasts. Each cell 
grows a little longer than it was before and then breaks in 
two, each half being an individual. This process, known 
as reproduction by fission, gives to bacteria the name of 
fission fungi. 

Like yeasts, some bacteria can produce spores under 
unfavorable conditions. A bacterium, however, instead of 
producing a number of spores, forms only a single one. 
The advantage of the spore state seems to be in the greater 
power of resistance that the spore possesses — it is less 
easily killed by heat or cold or drying. If food is being 
sterilized and spore-forming bacteria are present, it is quite 



YEASTS AND BACTERIA 23 

possible that the heating will kill all of the bacteria but the 
spores will be left alive. By the following day, however, 
the majority of these spores will have again changed them- 
selves into the ordinary forms of bacteria, and a second 
heating will kill these forms. A third heating is safest to 
make sure that any spores remaining the second day are 
destroyed. Both yeasts and bacteria are too small to be 
seen without a microscope ; but of the two, yeasts are much 
the larger. While a yeast cell is about one three-thou- 
sandth of an inch in diameter, even the largest bacterium 
has a diameter of not more than one ten-thousandth of 
an inch. It might well seem as if organisms as small as 
this could not do us either much harm or much good, and 
this would probably be true if it were not for the wonderful 
rate at which they can multiply. In a bacterium, division 
may take place every half hour, and at that rate, in only 
one day, conditions being favorable, a single cell could 
produce about seventeen million others. If, then, food is 
to be kept from spoiling, it is obviously necessary to 
exclude the entrance of even one bacterium. 

When bacteria first act upon food, the result may be 
only beneficial ; the good flavor of butter and some 
cheeses is undoubtedly due to their action. Bacteria, 
however, will finally render food unfit for use, producing 
decay and putrefaction. But what a world it would be 
if micro-organisms did not bring about these processes. 
Our world would be littered with useless material, and the 
soil long ago would have become exhausted. 

Bacteria may be divided into three distinct classes : 
first, those capable of producing diseases, such as typhoid 
and diphtheria; second, those which in the process of 
growth produce substances poisonous to us. These sub- 
stances, called ptomains, are the cause of the ptomain poi- 
soning cases which occur from time to time. The third 



24 FOOD STUDY 

class IS composed of those that are either harmless or 
beneficial to us. The bacteria which cause milk to sour not 
only are not any more poisonous to us than are any of the 
other vegetable plants used for food, but they may be of 
positive benefit in keeping down the growth of more harm- 
ful organisms. 

"Swat the fly" has become a slogan in modern times. 
A glance at the enlarged diagram of a fly, particularly of 
the feet, will show why it is considered objectionable to 
have flies around, and especially so to have them crawl 
over food. Coming from infected material and filth, they 
may bring with them all kinds of germs. If the germs are 
introduced into food material, where every condition is 
right for their reproduction, it is evident how trouble 
may occur. It is very necessary then, that flies be ex- 
cluded from houses as far as possible. Any flies that find 
entrance must be killed or caught, and care must be taken 
not to allow heaps of manure or garbage, or other fly- 
breeding material, to stand long enough for their larvse to 
develop and escape. Much the easiest method of keeping 
free from flies is to control possible breeding places. A 
new kind of garbage can acts as fly-catcher and, placed 
just outside the house, may catch many flies which would 
otherwise find their wa}^ in. Then garbage and flies 
together must be disposed of. Other insects may, of 
course, also act as carriers of germs, but the fly especially 
brings them. 

Reference 

Conn. " Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home ", sections on 
Bacteria and Yeasts. 

Questions 

1. Give instances in which bacteria are beneficial. 

2. Why may there be more spores on the fruits and vegetables 



SWEET PICKLED PEACHES 25 

growing in a very dry season ? Why would such fruits be harder to 
can successfully? 

3. Why, in making cucumber pickles, is the brine reheated at 
intervals ? 

4. How should garbage cans be cared for ? 

5. What are the best means of disposing of garbage ? 

6. Why should all foods and dishes be covered carefully when 
sweeping or dusting is going on ? 



V 

SWEET PICKLED PEACHES 

A. Prepake Sweet Pickled Peaches. 
Use one peach. 

^ peck peaches 1 pint vinegar 

2 lbs. brown sugar 1 oz. stick cinnamon 

Cloves 

Scald the peaches, peel them, and stick them with three 
or four cloves. Cook until tender a few of them at a time, 
in a syrup made by boiling together the sugar, cinnamon, 
and vinegar. Put in jars. 

B. Class Experiment. 

Conditions favoring Growth of Micro-organisms. 

Try the following experiments, using petri dishes, 
or saucers covered with tumblers or sheets of glass : 

1. Place a piece of bread in each of two dishes. 
Leave the first piece of bread dry; moisten the 
second piece with water. Expose both to the air 
for five minutes in a room where people are moving 
about. Cover, and keep both in a dark place (as, 
for example, in a cupboard) for two days, and ob- 
serve the results. 



26 FOOD STUDY 

2. Place a piece of bread in another dish and moisten 
it. Expose it for five minutes in a room when no 
one but yourself is present, and do not move more 
than you can help during the exposure. Keep this 
dish also in the dark for two days and compare with 
the second dish in (1). 

3. Put pieces of bread (moistened) in four dishes, and 
expose all at once for five minutes in a room with 
people moving about. 

a. Keep the first in a warm room. 
h. Keep the second in an ice-box. 

c. Keep the third in the sunlight as much as possible. 

d. Keep the fourth in a dark, warm place. 

Examine these at the end of two days. If necessary, 
let them stand longer. What effect has dryness or 
moisture, warmth or cold, light or darkness, on the 
growth of mold ? Account for the difference in (2). 

Conditions Favorable to the Growth of 
Micro-organisms 

Food might seem to be the first condition necessary to 
the growth of micro-organisms, and so it is ; and yet they 
seem able to live for a fair length of time without food. 
They blow around in the air, or are transmitted by water, 
in neither of which elements are they fed. Under these 
circumstances, it is true, they are not growing or multiply- 
ing, and may even be in the spore state, but once the 
organisms reach available food, they begin to grow and 
reproduce with wonderful rapidity. 

Water, as well as food, is necessary, but different 
organisms vary somewhat in regard to the necessary 
amounts. Bacteria and yeasts require a goodly propor- 



GROWTH OF MICRO-ORGANISMS 27 

tion of water, and it is only in watery foods that they are 
capable of much growth. Sugar and flour, for example, 
are much too dry for them. Twenty-five to thirty per 
cent of water is necessary for any growth, and, even then, 
it will not be vigorous. Most bacteria cannot grow in 
foods which are strongly acid, but molds do not mind 
the acid, and as only small percentages of moisture are 
necessary to keep them alive, in damp weather as dry a 
food as flour may become moldy. Even books and clothes 
may mold in a damp room. Mildew is one species of mold. 

Bread that is in a closed bread-box is apt to become 
moldy if left too long ; but if bread is spread out, exposed 
to the air, it will probably dry without any molding at all. 
Possibly this is because a moving current of air dries up 
the moisture ; but, whatever the reason, it is true that mold 
grows best in still air. 

Bacteria differ greatly in relation to air. Some grow 
only in the presence, others in the absence of it, and some 
can prosper either way. The bacteria that live without air 
cause putrefaction and are perhaps most likely to produce 
ptomains; but the majority of bacteria grow best in an 
abundance of air, and most foods begin to spoil on the 
surface. 

Direct sunlight rapidly kills bacteria, and any daylight 
makes them grow more slowly and less vigorously. Molds 
may grow in either light or darkness, but they, too, grow 
best in a dark place. Plenty of light and fresh air, then, 
are the housekeeper's allies in the fight against micro- 
organisms. 

Another method of checking the growth of micro- 
organisms is by means of low temperatures. Few organ- 
isms can make* any but the most feeble growth in the cold. 
Even rather slight differences in temperature seem to have 
surprisingly great effects. 



28 FOOD STUDY 

For this reason food is placed in an ice-box to delay the 
growth of the micro-organisms, but as the temperature, 
even in very well-constructed refrigerators with a large 
ice chamber, is forty to forty-five degrees, usually nearer 
fifty degrees Fahrenheit, growth can be delayed only for 
a limited time. Such food will spoil eventually. But a 
temperature even of sixty degrees is still a great aid in 
keeping food temporarily. Cold storage is more efficient 
than home refrigeration, because a lower temperature is 
used. 

There are other means of preserving food, besides the 
use of cold temperatures. Drying evidently prevents the 
growth of bacteria, since they need so much water, and, 
if this is thorough, it may also prevent mold action. 
Dried fruits of all kinds have long been used, as have 
also some dried vegetables. Lately, more kinds of dried 
vegetables have been put upon the market, and even 
desiccated soups. All these are good food, as nutritious 
as before drying, but they do not retain quite the 
original flavors. 

Foods which can be boiled and canned may be made 
truly sterile, and if the process is carried out properly, such 
materials will keep indefinitely. Fruits and vegetables 
may well be taken care of in this manner. 

In recent years, still another method of preserving food 
has been used. This consists in the addition of something 
which will at least lessen the growth of germs, if not en- 
tirely prevent it. The difficulty is to find substances which 
will do this and yet have no harmful effect upon the people 
who eat the food. Among the substances commonly 
used for this purpose are borax, benzoic and salicylic 
acids, and formalin. These are all known to be harmful if 
taken in large amounts, but they are believed to have com- 
paratively little effect in small quantities. But because, if 



FOOD PRESERVATIVES 29 

they are allowed at all, it is difficult to be sure that they 
will be in sufficiently small amounts, and because repeated 
doses possibly may cause trouble, or small doses from a 
number of foods combine to make a large dose, and because 
some people (such as young children and invalids) are 
more susceptible to them than others, the national pure 
food law has forbidden the ordinary use of them, unless 
the kind and amount of any such added substance is 
plainly printed on the bottle or can in which the food is 
sold. 

There are, however, some food substances which, them- 
selves, have something of the preserving effect. Mixing 
foods with sufficient sugar protects them well from bacteria 
or mold growth, but not quite so well against yeasts. 
Raisins, dates, and figs all have so much sugar in them that 
it is not necessary to add any more to insure their keeping 
well, when they are partially dried. Salt, too, has preserv- 
ative action, and salting fish is a usual device for keeping 
it. Other foods, like corned beef, are kept immersed in 
brine, — that is, in salt and water. Salted butter, too, 
keeps better than fresh, and perhaps that is why so little 
fresh butter is used in this country. Salty foods are un- 
doubtedly not so digestible as fresh, and the use of such 
foods for invalids and young children is questionable. 
Vinegar, sometimes reinforced by spices, is another food 
preservative, but pickled foods will not keep indefinitely. 
Many of the common spices also have some preservative 
powder. Mince meat, if kept cool, will remain in good 
condition for a long period. Fruit-cake, which is highly 
spiced, keeps well. Sausage is another food which is 
spiced in order to prevent spoiling. But pickled or spiced 
food, like that preserved in salt, is probably far less digest- 
ible than in the original form, and the too frequent use of 
it is to be avoided. 



30 FOOD STUDY 



References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 375. "Care of 

Food in the Home." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 459. "House Flies." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 353. "The Ice-Box." 
Conn. "Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home", sections on 

Yeasts and Bacteria. 
Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home. "Preservation of Food 

in the Home ", especially pages 281-286 inclusive. 

Questions 

1. Under what circumstances is it wise for a housewife to put up 
much fruit ? 

2. Why IS drying a means of preserving fruits and vegetables ? 

3. What preservative is sometimes added to commercial catsup? 

4. How must an ice-box be taken care of ? 

5. What foods should never be placed in an ice-box ? 

6. What kinds of foods is it unnecessary to keep in a cool place, 
and why ? 

7. Why should butter and milk be covered when in the refrigerator, 
and if possible kept in a compartment by themselves ? 

8. When a bread-box smells musty how must it be cared for ? 



VI 



USE OF WATER IN COOKING 

Boiled Potatoes 
Mashed Potatoes 

A. Various Methods of Boiling Potatoes. 
(Each student is to try one way and compare the result 
with the others.) 

1. Wash and scrub a potato. Cook it in boiling salted 

water until it is soft. Allow one teaspoon of salt to 

one quart of water. 



USE OF WATER IN COOKING 31 

2. Boil a potato as directed in (1), but pare it before 
boiling. 

3. Boil a potato as in (1), but, before boiling, cut off a 
strip of the skin all around the potato. 

How do these potatoes differ in color and in mealiness, 
after they are done ? 

Mash the potato with a fork. Beat till light and 
creamy. Add two teaspoons of hot milk, one-half 
teaspoon of butter, and season with salt, while beat- 
ing. Heap the potato on a buttered plate and make 
an indentation in the middle of the heap. Open an 
egg, being careful not to break the yolk, slip it into the 
indentation in the potato, and place all in an oven 
until the egg is cooked sufficiently to suit taste. 
Season egg with a very little butter, salt, and pepper. 
Pimento may be rubbed through a strainer and 
beaten into the potato at the beginning to add color 
and flavor. 

B. Class Experiment. Composition of a Potato. 
(To be carried out while the potatoes are boiling.) 

1. Pare a small potato; cut off a slice and leave it 
exposed to the air for half an hour. 

2. Grate the rest of the potato into a piece of cheese- 
cloth. Gather up the corners of the cloth and, by 
squeezing, press out all the liquid possible. Then 
wash in a bowl of water till nothing more can be 
extracted. Allow the water to stand, and examine 
the sediment. Look at it under the microscope. 
Boil a portion of it. Test a portion with iodine. A 
blue color indicates the presence of starch. 

3. Examine the contents of the cheesecloth. What 
ingredients of potato have you found so far ? 

4. Put a pared potato into a large kettle of cold water, 



32 FOOD STUDY 

and then put the kettle on to boil. When the 
potato is cooked, compare it with those started in 
boiling water in (A). 

C. Class Experiment. 

Different Stages in the Boiling of Water. 

Heat some water in a saucepan to boiling ; meanwhile, 
with a thermometer, take the temperature of the water 
at the following stages : 

1. When the first small bubbles appear on the bottom 
and sides of the pan. (What are these bubbles ?) 

2. When the water feels neither hot nor cold to the hand. 
(Lukewarm) 

3. When somewhat larger bubbles appear around the 
edge and at the bottom of the pan. (Scalding) 
What are these bubbles ? 

4. When the bubbles begin to rise. (Simmering) 

5. When the bubbles rise rapidly, breaking, and com- 
pletely agitating the surface of the water. (Boiling) 

6. Increase the heat and see if the water gets hotter. 

Potatoes 

The name potato is a corruption of the last part of the 
Latin name for sweet potatoes, ipomcea batata, but the 
name by common consent is given to our white potato. 
White potatoes are a native of America, perhaps of Chile, 
and were not known in Europe until about 1580. They 
were introduced into North America about the same 
time. At first, they did not meet with great favor in 
Europe, and it was not until there was shortage in a series 
of staple crops that they sprang into favor. Now they 
have been adopted in Ireland to such an extent that they 
form a large part of the food of the people, and for that 
reason are often called Irish potatoes. 



POTATOES 



33 



Potatoes form forty per cent of the total vegetable crop 
of the world, so that their name of king of vegetables is not 
undeserved, and they are next in importance among the 
vegetable products to cereals. When we compare these 
facts with the report that at the time of our American 
Revolution a well-to-do family thought itself fortunate if 
it had at most a barrel of potatoes for its winter supply, 
and that these were only served on special occasions and 
for honored guests, we can see how greatly the relative 
importance of the position of the potato has changed. 

The potato is a tuber, that is, an underground stem 
which is thickened and has become a storehouse for future 
plants. The eyes of the potato are buds from which the 
new plants will sprout under proper conditions. These 
new plants use the food material which is stored in the 
potato, and the tuber itself is thereby gradually rendered 
unfit for food. 

P/?0rE/N2.2fo 
CRUDE nBER,ETCfi.4^ 

ASHf.O^o. 




FATOJfi 

Composition of the Potato 

The average loss of nutrients from boiling is shown by the 

shading. 



If a thin slice across a potato is held up to the light, four 
distinct parts are observable. First comes the grayish 
brown skin, which corresponds with the bark of an ordinary 
stem. Underneath this is the cortical layer, which may be 



34 



FOOD STUDY 



from a tenth to a fifth of an inch thick, and is often sHghtly 
colored. If this layer is exposed to sunlight for some 
time, it will turn green, showing its relation to the green 
layer which is found underneath the bark of an ordinary 
stem. The inner layers are 
known as the flesh of the 
potato, and, for our pur- 
pose, may be considered as 
one. The potato is made 
up of a network of cells; 
the cell walls being, of 
course, largely cellulose. 
The cells are filled with 
water in which is dis- 





Sections of the Potato 

a, skin ; h, cortical layer ; c, outer medullary layer ; d, inner 
medullary layer. 

solved mineral matter, a little sugar, and most of the 
protein * which is found in the potato. In the cells and 
surrounded by this water are the starch grains. While a 



* Protein is the foodstuff containing nitrogen, and is essential 
for building body tissue which contains nitrogen. 



POTATOES 35 

little fat is also present the amount is so small that it 
need not be taken into consideration. 

The potato is largely composed of water, seventy-eight 
and three-tenths per cent, so over three-quarters of the 
whole weight is w^ater. Of the eighteen and four-tenths 
per cent carbohydrate, about sixteen per cent is starch. 
There is only four-tenths of one per cent of cellulose pres- 
ent. Although they are small in amount, the two and two- 
tenths per cent of nitrogenous matter and one per cent of 
mineral matter are important. 

Besides the substances already mentioned, there is also 
a trace of solanin, a poisonous substance which may occur 
in greater or less amounts and which is said to give the 
characteristic flavor to the potato. This trace of solanin 
is supposed to be volatilized during the cooking of the 
vegetable, and so it is improbable that we ever eat it in any 
large amounts. If the potato is old and has been allowed 
to sprout, if it is unripe, or if it has been grown too near 
the surface and so has a decidedly green color, it may 
contain sufficient solanin to cause some digestive disturb- 
ance. Instances of this, however, are probably very 
rare. A fear of it makes us careful to cut away the flesh 
immediately around the sprout in an old potato. Care 
should also be taken to prevent sprouting, not only for 
this reason, but because the sprouts use up the food ma- 
terial in the tuber. Potatoes, then, should be stored in a 
dark, dry, cool place, and should be protected against 
freezing. A potato that has been frozen has a sweetish 
taste and is never so mealy as a good potato. 

Potatoes are distinguished as mealy, soggy, and waxy. 
Most people prefer a mealy potato. This quality in the 
vegetable is supposed to be due to the amount and dis- 
tribution of the starch. If, however, in cooking, the steam 
in a potato is allowed to condense to water, the potato 



36 FOOD STUDY 

becomes soggy. For this reason potatoes should never be 
allowed to cease boiling while they are cooking; they 
should be dried out as completely as possible when they 
are done, and served in an uncovered dish. Baked 
potatoes should be pricked with a fork or opened at once 
when they are done. Some potatoes are naturally soggy, 
but a good potato can be made so by poor handling in its 
preparation for the table. New potatoes are much more 
waxy than older ones, owing, perhaps, to the larger amount 
of protein present. 

Potatoes are sold both by measure and by weight, but in 
many places dealers are now required to sell by weight, 
because that gives a more uniform amount to the customer. 
Potatoes should run fifteen pounds to a peck. In select- 
ing, those of medium size and with a smooth skin should 
be chosen. A large potato is more liable to break up in 
cooking, and a small one means too much trouble in 
preparation if it is to be pared. 

In preparing potatoes for the table, they should first be 
washed and then scrubbed with a small brush. If they 
are to be boiled, they may or may not be pared before 
cooking. If they are pared and then exposed to the air 
for any length of time they will turn dark, owing to the 
action of oxygen, together with a ferment which is found 
in the potato. This can be prevented by dropping the 
potatoes into cold water, which excludes the air. Soaking, 
however, should be avoided, for it removes some of the 
food material, which means loss of nutriment, and is only 
permissible if the potato is rather old, wizened, or inferior. 
In that case, the product is so much improved by the soak- 
ing that we are justified, even though some food value is 
lost. Since the cortical layer contains a higher percentage 
of both the protein and mineral salts than the rest of the 
potato, unless paring is carefully done we lose a large 



POTATOES 37 

part of the most valuable ingredients. If much fruit and 
salad vegetables are included in the diet, it may not be 
necessary to consider the loss of mineral salts ; but if it is 
desired to preserve them, the potato should be cooked in its 
jacket. This means that the potato is not quite so white, 
but there is no special reason why a perfectly white potato 
should be demanded. If potatoes are put on in cold water 
to boil, the same effect as soaking is obtained. Most of 
the mineral matter and protein, and some of the starch 
are lost. If, instead, the potatoes are placed in boiling 
water, the protein is coagulated quickly and less of it 
escapes. Most of the mineral salts are still dissolved by the 
water and so lost, since potato water has rather too strong 
and disagreeable a flavor to be palatable and is usually 
thrown away. Potatoes may be steamed with little loss 
of nutriment, or baked, in which case practically nothing 
is lost but water. Potatoes are cooked partly to hydrate 
the starch, and partly because the expansion of water into 
steam means the breaking of the cellulose walls of the 
cells, whereby the contents become more readily digestible. 
Probably the chief reason is the improvement of flavor. 

Since potatoes contain a small amount of cellulose, com- 
pared with most other vegetables, they are digestible, and 
there is comparatively little difference in their digestibility 
as a result of different ways of cooking. A mealy potato 
seems to be more digestible than a soggy or waxy one, 
probably because it is better broken up, and so the diges- 
tive juices can get at it better. Potatoes have long been 
classed as a starchy food, and most books state that there 
is so little protein present that it need not be taken into 
account. Max Rubner, in a recent paper, states that the 
protein present is of such a character and amount as to 
form a balanced ration, if it were possible to consume the 
necessary bulk to supply the needed energy. Potatoes 



38 FOOD STUDY 

are so bulky, on account of the large amount of water 
present, that they cannot serve as a sole food. 

Sweet potatoes differ botanically from white in that they 
are thickened roots instead of stems. Chemically, they 
contain about nine per cent less water, and more carbo- 
hydrate. Most of this additional carbohydrate is sugar, 
which accounts for the sweet taste. Sweet potatoes 
grown in different regions vary greatly in the amount of 
sugar, those grown in the south containing a larger per- 
centage than those in the north. There is so little differ- 
ence in food value between sweet and white potatoes that 
they may be substituted for one another in the diet. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 244. "Cooking Quality of Potatoes." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 256. ** Preparation of Vegetables for the 

Table." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 295. "Potatoes and other Root Crops as 
Food." 
Office of Exp. Station Bulletin No. 43. "Losses in Cooking Vege- 
tables." "Comparison of the Digestibility of Potatoes and 
Eggs." 

Questions 

1. Wliy should not potatoes be tightly covered while boiling? 

2. How should they be cared for when done ? 

3. Why are new potatoes more often cooked in their skins or 
jackets than old potatoes ? 

4. When do new potatoes come into market ? 

5. What is the average cost of potatoes ? 

6. Is it fairer to sell potatoes by weight or measure? Would a 
bushel of very large potatoes or of very small potatoes give the pur- 
chaser most for his money ? 

7. How should potatoes be kept to prevent sprouting? What 
harm does the sprout do the potato ? 

8. Are old or new potatoes considered more digestible? Why? 



USE OF WATER IN COOKING 39 

9. If you are going to use the potato mashed, what is the advan- 
tage of cutting the potato into sHces before cooking? What is the 
disadvantage ? 

10. Why should potatoes be pared as thinly as possible without 
too great waste of time? Where do the mineral salts in potatoes 
lie? 

11. If the potatoes you wish to boil together are not all one size, 
what will you do ? 

12. Compare the temperature you obtained for boiling water with 
the temperatures to be obtained at sea level, and on high mountains. 
Explain the variations. 



VII 

USE OF WATER IN COOKING 

Boiled Eggs 
Stuffed Eggs 

A. Class Experiments. Eggs. 

1. Weigh out a pound of eggs. How many average- 
sized eggs in a pound? Repeat with small eggs. 
With large eggs. Would it be fairer to sell eggs 
by the pound instead of by the dozen? 

2. Boil an egg in a strong solution of cochineal for 
half an hour. Break open and examine. What 
property of the shell is shown? What problem 
does this present in the care of eggs ? 

3. Tests for freshness. 

a. Place eggs in a ten per cent salt solution. 

What is the relation of the freshness of an egg 

to its specific gravity ? 
h. Roll up a large sheet of paper into a cylinder. 

Place an egg in one end and look through 

the other end. Hold in front of a strong 



40 FOOD STUDY 

light. What may a dark appearance indi- 
cate? 

c. Note the feehng of the shell, rough or smooth. 

d. Shake various eggs. 

Are all these tests reliable with cold storage 
eggs? 

B, Class Experiment. 

Cooking Temperature of White of Egg. 

1. Put a little white of an egg into a test tube and im- 
merse the test tube in cool water above the level of 
the egg inside. Hold a thermometer in the egg white, 
and heat the water gradually, watching the egg 
carefully. As soon as it becomes opaque remove the 
tube from the water and note the temperature. 
Try some of the egg, and notice how tender it is. 
Replace the test tube with the rest of the egg white 
and heat as long as the temperature rises. Remove 
and compare with the first. 

2. Cook an egg in boiling water for three minutes. 
Cook another by keeping it five minutes in water 
just below the boiling point (about 175° F.). Break 
and compare consistency. 

3. Boil an egg for twenty minutes. Compare with an 
egg kept in water just below the boiling point for 
forty-five minutes. 

C. Class Experiment. Boiling Eggs. 

1. Place three eggs in three pints of boiling water. 
Cover closely to retain heat, but remove from flame. 
Remove : 

a. one egg in five minutes, 

h. one egg in seven minutes, 

c. one egg in ten minutes. 



WATER 41 

2. Give directions for cooking correctly : 

a. a soft-cooked egg, 

b. a medium-cooked egg, 

c. a hard-cooked egg. 

D. Prepare Stuffed Eggs. 

Cut a hard-cooked egg in halves ; carefully remove the 
yolk. Season the yolk by mashing and mixing with it 

i tsp. vinegar A pinch of salt 

1 ssp. mustard A few grains of paprika 

Add melted butter, about a fourth of a teaspoon, so that 
the yolk can be molded, shape into balls, and refill the 
whites. Cheese or minced ham may be added to the yolk. 

Water 

Water, as everyone knows, exists in three states or 
conditions. It may be solid, in which case it is called ice ; 
it may be liquid, and then it is really called water ; or it 
may be a vapor, in which case it is spoken of as steam. 
The difference between these states is merely one of tem- 
perature. It takes heat to turn ice into water, and it takes 
heat to turn water into steam. Since water cannot, under 
ordinary circumstances, grow any hotter than its boiling 
point, cooking will not proceed any faster because the 
water is boiling fast instead of slow. All that is accom- 
plished is the turning of more water into steam. If the 
object is the concentration of the material, then it is of 
course desirable to boil fast ; but in most boiling it means 
merely a waste of heat. Occasionally the rapid motion is 
itself desirable, because it keeps the food from settling 
to the bottom of the pan and perhaps burning. The 
pressure cooker is a device for retaining the steam and so 



42 FOOD STUDY 

increasing the pressure that the water itself actually is 
hotter than the usual boiling point. Food can, of course, 
be cooked faster in it than in the usual covered kettle, 
because the temperature is really higher. 

Water is used in more than one way in cooking. Some- 
times it acts as a carrier of flavor, as w^hen it is used to 
extract the flavor of tea or coffee ; sometimes as a means 
of conveying heat to the food to be cooked. This is its 
use in boiling or steaming. At other times water is taken 
up into the food itself. In cooking rice, for example, 
there is much starch present but not enough water to 
hydrate it. This is the reason that rice cannot be put in 
an oven and baked as a potato can. 

Water is composed of two gases, oxygen and hydrogen. 
It is true that some water is actually manufactured in the 
body by the oxidation of some of the hydrogen contained 
in food, but as the water we consume as such is never 
broken up in the body into these two gases, it is not neces- 
sary to consider further its chemical composition. 

Although water is not capable of furnishing the body 
with energy, it is absolutely necessary to us. While 
people have proved that it is possible to go without food 
for weeks, it is impossible to live any length of time with- 
out water. The body itself is about two-thirds water. 
This means that there must be water to build up into body 
substance. Besides this, water has many important 
functions. For example, it moistens the digestive tract ; 
makes it possible to swallow food ; softens the food itself ; 
mixes with the digestive ferments, and so enables them to 
act upon all parts of the food. It dissolves the food as it 
is digested and carries it through the lining of the digestive 
tract. Then, the blood is composed largely of water, as 
are all the other fluids of the body; so it is water that 
carries nourishment to all the different cells in the body. 



WATER 43 

Water in the blood circulating through the body acts as a 
distributor of heat, and, again, the evaporation of water as 
perspiration helps to regulate the heat of the body. It is 
water, too, that dissolves and carries away the wastes of 
the body. But these are only some of the important func- 
tions of water. It is probable that none of the chemical 
and physiological changes which go on in the body can 
take place except in the presence of water. 

The body gives off from the lungs, skin, and kidneys 
about four and one-half pints of water daily. About one- 
sixth of this amount is the water that was spoken of as 
manufactured from the oxidation of food ; the remaining 
amount must be taken into the body daily. Of course, 
a good deal of water is furnished by foods themselves. 
Soups and beverages obviously contain large amounts of 
water, but many other so-called solid foods, like potatoes, 
contain large amounts. It is usually said that a person 
needs about eight glasses of liquid a day. 

At one time it was considered harmful to drink water 
with meals, for it was feared that the water would dilute 
the digestive juices to such an extent that they w^ould fail 
to act upon the food. This notion is still popularly be- 
lieved. Recent experiments, however, were tried to 
determine the truth of the matter. Healthy men were fed 
test meals, in some cases water being given and in others 
withheld. After a certain length of time, the contents of 
the stomach were examined to see how fast digestion had 
proceeded. In every case it was discovered that digestion 
took place more quickly if water had been given. We know 
now that the taking of water at meals is beneficial, stim- 
ulating digestion and not hindering it. What has been 
said is not in any way intended to imply that the washing 
down with water of poorly chewed food is anything but 
harmful. That is an entirely different question; nor 



44 FOOD STUDY 

is it intended to imply that the drinking of large quantities 
of very cold water may not have a different effect from 
the one described. Cold stops digestion, or slows it, 
and too much ice water at a meal may readily have 
this effect. 

People who wish to grow thin are often told to go with- 
out water at meal times. The reason this is an aid is not 
that water itself is fattening, but because less is eaten if no 
liquid is taken. The same effect would be accomplished 
if we should in any other way lessen the amount eaten. 
Anyone going without water at meals should be sure to 
drink the needed amount of water between meals, for 
water is just as necessary to him as to anyone else. 

Water is usually classified as surface and ground water. 
Rain water and water from streams and rivers belong to 
the first class. Well water and deep spring water belong 
to the second. Rain water is our purest water, if it is col- 
lected from a clean surface after the dust in the air has 
been washed out. This water, flowing along the ground or 
through it, dissolves or carries along with it many different 
substances. Water which has much mineral substance 
dissolved in it is called hard ; this is the water that will 
not lather easily with soap. Hard water is, however, of 
two kinds. In one case there is present a soluble lime 
salt which precipitates if the water is boiled. This is the 
water which leaves a crust on the inside of a tea kettle. 
It is called temporarily hard because the water itself is 
softer after the boiling. W^ater containing salts of lime 
and magnesium which are unaffected by the boiling is 
called permanently hard. Permanently hard water may, 
however, be softened by the addition of such chemicals as 
soda, ammonia, and borax. Soft water is much the best 
for washing and also for cooking, but it is not so palatable 
as harder water. Water that is very hard is possibly not 



WATER 45 

SO good for us. If it can be softened by boiling, it may be 
cooled and used for drinking. 

Water is a carrier of bacteria, and the most harmful 
water is not hard water, but water which contains harm- 
ful bacteria. There are many kinds of domestic filters 
which are supposed to remove the bacteria from the 
water. Most of them are not reliable and, in any event, 
need great care. They must be sterilized frequently or 
the water which goes through them will be found to con- 
tain more bacteria than it did before. If there is any 
reason to believe that the water is dangerous, it is much 
safer to sterilize the water by boiling it. All that is 
necessary is to bring the water to boiling and then cool it. 
Water which has been boiled tastes flat because it contains 
less air dissolved in it. The palatability can be increased 
by pouring the water back and forth from one pitcher to 
another so as again to dissolve air in it. 

Freezing does not sterilize w^ater. While in cities, at 
least, our water usually comes from a reservoir that is 
carefully protected from contamination, our ice supply 
may come from a private pond in which the water may 
be quite impure. Unless it is known that the water 
from which the ice was made was pure, the ice itself should 
not be put into beverages or foods. Instead, they can be 
set on ice to cool. So-called artificial ice is manufactured 
by freezing water in large tanks, the necessary cold tem- 
perature being often obtained by the evaporation of 
ammonia. Such ice is as pure as the water from which it 
is made. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin 57. ''Water Supply, Plumb- 
ing and Sewage Disposal for Country Houses." 
Ogden. "Rural Hygiene." 



46 FOOD STUDY 



Questions 

1. What diseases are most frequently carried by water? 

2. Why is the water from shallow wells often dangerous ? 

3. How should such wells be protected ? 

4. Why is deep well water usually safer ? 

5. How is the question of sewage disposal bound up with the 
question of a safe water supply ? 



VIII 

USE OF WATER IN COOKING 

Poached Eggs 

A. Class Experiment. Solubility of Egg White. 

1. Cut a small piece of uncooked egg white with a 
pair of scissors. Shake the egg white with some cold 
water. Filter. Has any of the egg white dissolved ? 
Find out by testing as follows : 

a. Boil some of the filtered water. 
What happens ? 

b. Add nitric acid to a second portion and boil. 
Cool, and add ammonia. Note color given. 

c. Try the effect of the acid and ammonia on some 
of the egg white itself. Egg white contains 
large amounts of protein, and protein gives the 
color with the acid and ammonia. 

2. Repeat the experiment, but use water which is nearly 
boiling to shake with the egg. 

B. Class Experiment. 

The Correct Temperature for Poaching Eggs. 

1. Drop one teaspoon of egg white into a pan of water 
which is at about 150° F. 



EGGS 47 

2. Repeat, but have the water boiHng hard and let it 
continue boiHng for a moment or two. 

3. Repeat, but have the water just below boiling. 
Why does the egg white spread in one, and break up 

in another? In which is the temperature too high to 
give the cooked egg a good consistency? 

C. Poach an Egg. From the results obtained in 
the previous experiment, account for the temperature of 
the water suggested in the following recipe. While it 
is desirable, the muffin ring is not essential. Serve on 
toast. What will happen if the water used is too cold? 
Too hot ? 

Dropped Eggs. (Poached) 

Have ready a shallow pan two-thirds full of boiling, 
salted water, allowing one-half tablespoon of salt to one 
quart of water. Put two or three buttered muffin rings 
in the water. Break each egg separately into a cup, and 
carefully slip into a muffin ring. The water should cover 
the eggs. When there is a film over the top, and the white 
is firm, carefully remove with a buttered skimmer to cir- 
cular pieces of buttered toast, and let each person season 
his own egg with butter, salt, and pepper. 

From the "Boston Cooking-School Cook Book." By 
Fannie M. Farmer. 

Eggs 

The United States government bulletin on eggs tells us 
that "perhaps no article of diet of animal origin is more 
commonly eaten in all countries or served in a greater 
variety of ways." But eggs are even more interesting 
when it is remembered that, like milk, they are a complete 
food intended for the sole nourishment of the young 



48 FOOD STUDY 

animal. They must, of course, contain everything that is 
needed for growth. Even after what has been said about 
the need for water, it may be a surprise to learn that the 
edible portion of eggs is about three-fourths water, averag- 
ing about seventy-four per cent. The amount of protein 
present is high, fourteen and a half per cent; and this, 
together with the large amount of fat, ten and a half 
per cent, makes eggs rank with milk and meat in the 
diet. Then the ideal form of the iron and phosphorus 
present in the mineral matter adds to the value of eggs 
from the dietetic standpoint, and they are probably even 
better building material than meat. This nutriment is 
not divided evenly between the white and yolk, for the 
white contains more water and less protein and mineral 
matter than the yolk ; and practically all the fat is found 
in the latter. This highly nutritious yolk is intended to be 
the first source of food for the embryo chick. This embryo 
can usually be seen as a tiny dark speck lying close to the 
yolk. The white is food used at a later stage. 

The problem in buying eggs is to obtain them fresh, 
and the term fresh is by no means the same as new-laid. 
The new-laid egg is, of course, the most desirable grade, 
but often can be had only at an exorbitant price quite 
beyond the pocketbook of the average person. Eggs, 
like other foods, are affected by bacteria. The shells are 
a partial protection, but since they are porous, bacteria 
can enter and soon begin the process of decay. The 
earliest change is mainly in flavor. Later, the membrane 
which surrounds the yolk is partially absorbed and it be- 
comes difficult to separate the yolk from the white. The 
white can never be beaten stiff and dry if part of the yolk 
is mixed with it. An egg kept too long in cold storage often 
will have a white which will not beat properly. 

As eggs do not keep long under usual conditions and as 



EGGS 49 

hens do not lay uniformly throughout the year, many 
methods of preserving eggs have been tried. The most 
successful method for home use is a water-glass solution. 
This substance, which is a silicate of potassium or sodium, 
or a mixture of the two, can be bought as a syrupy liquid 
at a few cents a pound and diluted with ten times its volume 
of water. The water used should be pure and is better 
boiled and cooled before mixing. The diluted water-glass 
is poured over the eggs so as to cover them completely, and 
then they must be put into a cool place. This method is 
not only the easiest to use, but also the one that keeps the 
eggs best and with least disagreeable flavor. Eggs laid 
in April, May, and June are the best to use for this pur- 
pose, as they seem to keep most satisfactorily. The best 
method of all for keeping eggs is cold storage, and such eggs 
in certain seasons are about all that are on the market. 
Eggs which have been kept in this way will rattle some- 
what when shaken, because of the evaporation which 
may have gone on, and yet be fresh enough for use. 

Eggs should be washed before use. As the mucilagi- 
nous substance on the outside of the shell helps to render 
it less porous, it is better not to wash the shell until the 
egg is to be used. 

Eggs are becoming costly, and it is necessary to consider 
this in their use. Many recipes which call for eggs for 
thickening can be modified so that flour or starch may be 
substituted for all or at least some of the eggs, and baking 
powder may take the place of the egg used for leavening. 

For most people eggs are an easily and completely 
digested food. Sometimes an uncooked egg swallowed 
whole causes disturbance, because it has not sufficient 
flavor to start the flow of the digestive juices, and since 
the egg is not broken up, what ferment is present cannot 
well get at it. A raw egg beaten up with a little milk is 



50 FOOD STUDY 

much less apt to cause trouble. Eggs cooked in any way 
are very completely digested, and the ordinary person does 
not have to consider the small differences in digestibility 
which result from different methods of cooking. Even 
hard-boiled eggs, if they are not swallowed in lumps 
instead of being properly masticated, can be included in 
this statement. A soft-cooked egg is, however, more 
acceptable to most people than one that is hard-boiled. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 87. ''Food Value of Eggs." 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 103. 'Tresemng Eggs." 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 122. "Selling Eggs by Weight." "Flavor 

of Eggs." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 128. "Eggs and their Use as Food." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 190. "Cost of Eggs in Winter." 
Cornell Reading Course. "Preservation of Foods," Pt. Ill, pp. 

299, 300. 
Connecticut Exp. Station Bulletin, No. 55. "Infection and Preser- 
vation of Eggs." 
Office of Exp. Station Bulletin, No. 43. "Comparison of Digesti- 
bility of Potatoes and Eggs." 

Questions 

1. How can the freshness of an egg be determined before 
breaking ? 

2. Why does an egg become stale? 

3. Are cold-storage eggs good food ? 

4. WTiat is the best method of preserving eggs at home ? 

5. Why should eggs that are to be kept for some time not be 
washed before being put away ? 

6. \Miy must precaution be taken against putting eggs away 
near strong-smelling foods ? 

7. Why should eggs be washed before breaking? 

8. What use is made of egg shells ? 

9. How many eggs of average size in a pound? 



USE OF WATER IN COOKING 51 

10. What were the maximum and minimmn prices of eggs during 
the past year ? At what season of the year are eggs most expensive ? 
Cheapest ? 

11. Why are eggs valuable as food? 



IX 

USE OF WATER IN COOKING 

Cereal Breakfast Foods 

A. Class Experiment. 

The Relation of Surface to Evaporation. 

1. Put equal amounts of water into two saucepans, one 
much larger than the other, and heat both the same 
length of time, until the water in one is about half 
gone. Cool and measure roughly the amount of 
water left in each. To what, besides time, is the rate 
of evaporation proportional ? Would you increase or 
decrease the amount of water to be used in cooking 
a small amount of cereal in a large pan? 

2. Repeat the experiment, but with the saucepans 
closely covered. Is there any difference? Explain 
the result. 

B. Prepare Cereal with Fruit. 

1. Add gradually two tablespoons of wheatena to a cup 
and a quarter of actively boiling water, to which one- 
sixth of a teaspoon of salt has been added. After ten 
minutes cooking over the direct flame, finish over hot 
water. This will probably take thirty minutes. A 
few moments before the cereal is done, add the meat 
of five dates cut very fine. Serve with sugar and 
cream. 



52 



FOOD STUDY 



US-Deportment of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A.C.True: Director 



Prepared by 

C.FTLANGWORTHY 

Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigeltions 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 



fflmi g^^ 1^^^ ^^^^^^ 

ftoteift Fat Carbohydrates Ash 



CORN 



Fat: 4.; 



Ash:1 




ater:10.8 
.tein: 10.0 



Water 

Water: 10. 
FVotein:12 



Fuel Value 
4 Sa In. Equals 
1000 Calories 



WHEAT 



-Fat: 1.7 



rboKj^drates: 73.4 • Carbohydrates: 73.7 V 7 _a l i o 



FutL VALUE: 

BUCKWHEAT 

1800 CALDRIC5 Proteh-AO.Oyt^r^aier. 12.6 

PCR POUND Carbo^_ #l^at:2.2 

hydrates; 73.£^'^'^^^sh: 2.0 
Fuel value 

OAT 




1750 CALDRIE5 
PER POUND 



RICE 



Fat: 5, 



Ash: 3 




ater: 1 1.0 1 600 calories Water: 12 

otein : 1 1 .8 Rrotein7&l 



f Carbo- 
hydrates: 69.2 



RYE 



Fat:1.5- 



rUEL VALUE 



1720 CALORIES 
PER POUND 




ater:10.5 
FV^in:12.2 




Carbo 
hy3rates 



at: 2.0 



•Ash; 1.0 



Carbo- 

hydrates:73.9 \J^S>h: 1.9 
Fuel value: 



"UEL VALUE: 



1720 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



1750 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Composition of Cereals 



CEREAL BREAKFAST FOODS 53 

2. Repeat (1) to the point where the cereal has been 
cooked over the direct flame, but use only five-sixths 
of a cup of water. Then, instead of finishing over 
water, place it in a fireless cooker or hay box. 

C. Class Experiments. Cereals. 

1. Test cereals for both starch and protein. 

2. Examine rice- and oat-starch under the micro- 
scope. Notice size, shape, and any apparent 
markings. 

Cereal Breakfast Foods 

Cereals are cultivated grasses, but the seeds of these 
grasses are often called cereals. Sometimes, the term 
includes all products of cereals such as flour and macaroni 
as well as the grains themselves. Common usage, how- 
ever, often makes the word cereal synonymous with break- 
fast food. The seeds of the cultivated grasses are the part 
of the plant used, because they are packed with nutriment 
for the embryo. The grains commonly used for breakfast 
food are wheat, oats, corn, rice, and, occasionally, barley. 
Rice contains a larger amount of starch than the others, 
but little fiber, and it is on this account easily digested. 
Of the three grains most commonly used for breakfast 
foods, wheat, oats, and corn, oats furnishes most protein 
and fat, and has the highest calorie value * per pound. 
Wheat, however, does not differ very greatly in nutritive 
value and contains less fiber and so is more easily digested. 
Corn has a very tough fiber and ranks below the other two 
in calorie value. All these differences are comparatively 
small, and we can rank cereals together in their place in 
the diet, with the following average composition : 

* The calorie value of a food is the amount of energy, meas- 
ured in calories, which a given food furnishes to the body. 



54 FOOD STUDY 

Water 10-12 per cent. 

Protein 10-12 per cent. 

Carbohydrates 65-75 per cent. 

Fat 2-8 per cent. 

Mineral Matter 2 per cent. 

These figures are for the raw grains. Mushes and 
porridge contain a great deal of water. Cooked oatmeal 
contains nearly eighty-five per cent of water, but shredded 
wheat and the flaked breakfast foods have practically the 
same composition as the original grains. 

The cost of breakfast foods varies somewhat with the 
cereal from which they are made, the cost of those made 
from corn being least, those from oats next, while wheat is 
the most expensive. Cost, however, differs even more 
with the amount of preparation that has already been 
made. From this point of view, breakfast foods may be 
divided into four classes. In the first are foods like oat- 
meal or cracked wheat in which the grain has been husked 
but not cooked. Next, comes the class of partially cooked 
foods. These have been steamed until they are somewhat 
softened and then, if they are to be put on the market as 
flakes, they are passed between hot rollers which flatten 
the kernels. Rolled oats is an example of this class. The 
third class is composed of those which are sold ready to 
eat, as grape nuts or shredded wheat. Sometimes malt is 
used in the process of manufacture and is supposed to 
change the starch into sugar and so start the process of 
digestion. In most breakfast foods which are malted, not 
much change in the starch will be found to have occurred, 
and since, for the healthy person, it is of little moment 
whether this change has occurred or not, this fourth class, 
called predigested, is not of great importance. Breakfast 
foods which belong to the third class cost much more per 
pound than those in the first class, because more trouble 



CEREAL BREAKFAST FOODS 55 

has been taken in the preparation. The advantage to the 
housewife is in the saving of time necessary to prepare the 
food. Foods of the first class need to be cooked many 
hours in order to render them thoroughly digestible. This 
is more or less trouble even on a coal or wood stove, and on 
a gas stove is an expensive process. Cereals can, however, 
be easily and cheaply prepared in a fireless cooker, and if 
both cost and attention are to be considered, this is the 
method of preparation which should be chosen. The foods 
of the second class need, usually, to be cooked about twice 
as long as the time given on the package. The manufac- 
turer, in order to attract custom, cuts the necessary time 
of preparation down to a minimum. 

Many of the breakfast foods may be purchased both 
in bulk and package. The advantage of the package is 
greater surety of cleanliness. Most of the milling is 
carried on under excellent sanitary conditions. The 
package assures us that the goods have come to us in the 
same condition as that in which they left the mill. Bulk 
goods are often protected neither from dust nor insects. 
As, however, the uncooked, cereals sold in bulk are 
thoroughly sterilized in cooking, this protection is far less 
necessary than in the case of such foods as bread, which is 
eaten as bought. 

Since cereals do not keep well, it is better to buy them 
only in moderate amounts. There is often considerable 
saving, however, in buying even two packages instead of 
one. 

References 

U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 105. "Cereal Breakfast Foods." 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 237. "Cereal Breakfast Foods." 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 249. "Cereal Breakfast Foods." 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 316. "Cooking Cereal Foods." 



56 FOOD STUDY | 

Farmers* Bulletin No. 298. "The Fireless Cooker." 

The Exp. Station Bulletin No. 200. " Course in Cereal Foods." 

Questions 

1. Make a list of all the kinds of grain you know. 

2. How does the English use of the word **corn" differ from the 
American ? 

3. Give illustrations of the different groups of breakfast foods on 
the market. 

a. Uncooked grains. 
h. Partly cooked. 

c. Ready to eat. 

d. Predigested. 

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different 
groups ? 

5. Is the greater cost of package foods justified ? 

6. Why is it well to keep cereals in glass jars tightly covered ? 

7. Why are cereals so important as food ? 

8. How can the *'skin" which sometimes forms on top of a cereal t 
while it is cooking be prevented ? 

9. Why will soaking the grains for an hour or so beforehand shorten 

the needed time for cooking ? ^^ 

10. What are the advantages of using a fireless cooker in preparing > 

cereals ? • I 

X * 

STARCH \ 



Apple Tapioca 
Boiled Rice 

A, Prepare Apple Tapioca. 

1| tbsp. Minute tapioca 

\ c. water 

A pinch of salt 

Cook together in a double boiler until transparent (about 
fifteen minutes). Pare and core a sour apple. Put in a 
buttered baking dish, and fill the cavity in the apple with 



t 
I 



STARCH 57 

sugar. Pour the tapioca over it, and bake in a moderate 
oven until the apple is soft. Serve with sugar and cream. 

B. Rice. 

Wash the rice thoroughly in a strainer in a bowl of water, 
rubbing the rice between the hands. Change the water, 
until it remains clear. Cook by the following methods : 

1. Gradually sprinkle two tablespoons of rice into two 
cups of rapidly boiling water with one-half teaspoon 
of salt added. 

2. Cook two tablespoons of rice in two-thirds of a cup of 
boiling, salted water for five minutes. Finish cook- 
ing in a double boiler. (Why is less water used ?) 

3. Cook two tablespoons of rice in two-thirds of a cup of 
boiling, salted water for five minutes. Then place in 
a mold and steam. 

In all cases cook until the rice is soft. 

a. Compare the time used to cook by the different 
methods. 

b. Compare the appearance of the kernels as a result 
of the different treatments. 

c. Note also the relative amounts of rice before and 
after cooking. 

Starch 

Starch occurs in the cells of all plants as tiny white 
granules, but the size, shape, and appearance of these 
differ with the kind of plant from which they are taken. 
A plant manufactures sugar from the carbon dioxide in the 
air and fropa water, and this sugar is used as nutriment for 
the plant, being dissolved in the juice or sap and circulating 
through it. But since the plant has to store some of this 
nutriment for future use, it manufactures starch from some 
of the sugar. Starch has the advantage over sugar that 



58 FOOD STUDY 

it is not soluble in water. The material is carried into the 
cell as a solution of sugar which can pass readily through 
the cell wall and is then turned into granules of starch. 
^Alien the starch is finally used as the plant food, this 
process is reversed, the granules change into sugar again, 
and can then pass out through the cell wall. 

Scientists do not agree entirely in regard to the construc- 
tion of starch granules, but they believe that they are 
made up of at least two kinds of starch which are some- 
times named red and blue amylose. Amylose is merely 
the scientific name for starch, and the names red and 
blue are given to the two kinds not at all because of their 
color, for they are both white, but because of the colors 
which they turn with iodine. The starch inside the 
granules and composing the greater part of the grains is 
blue amylose, easily digested. Its outer covering is red 
amylose, much more difficult of digestion and impervious 
to cold liquids. If the starch grain is heated in water, it 
begins to swell, till its outer covering is stretched thin and 
allows liquids to pass readily through it. In this form 
digestive juices can get at the starch inside to digest it; 
and, therefore, cooked starch is more digestible than raw. 

Starch granules found in potato and arrowroot seem to 
be made up of only these two kinds of starch, but those in 
cereals seem to contain a small amount of a third kind 
called rose amylose. This is more difficult of digestion 
than is either of the other kinds, but with long boiling can 
be made to change into blue amylose. As it seems to 
be rather hard to cook the starch granules when they are 
shut up in the cell walls of the seed, this may be the reason 
why cereals take such a long time to cook. Corn starch is, 
of course, a cereal starch, and ordinary wheat flour, too, 
contains an abundance of starch ; but in grinding the 
grains, the cell walls are broken and so there is not the 



^ 



^9i 














Corn Starch 




Oat Starch 















- V ^ . 




Rice Starch AVheat Starch 

Starch Graixs, Magxified Maxy Times 
From Leach's "Food Inspection and Analysis." 



STARCH 



59 



same difficulty in getting at the starch for cooking. If, 
during the cooking of starch, as, for example, in the cooking 
of oatmeal, the surface is left exposed so that the top dries, 
the starch is changed into a hard skin which is exceedingly 
difficult of digestion. If the oatmeal is stirred occasion- 
ally and kept covered so that the steam is confined in the 
space above the surface, no such change occurs. 

When a vegetable food containing much starch, such as 
potatoes or cereals, is cooked, the starch granules swell in 
the process until they burst most of the cell walls of the 
plant. 




Changes of Starch Grains in Cooking 

o, cells and starch grains in a raw potato ; 6, in a partially 
cooked potato ; c, in a thoroughly boiled potato. 

Starch is not soluble in cold water, but, when heated, the 
granules finally break down and gelatinize. This is only 
partial solution. When a substance really dissolves, it 
disappears entirely from view, as sugar does in water. It 
may impart a color to the solution, but it does not render 
it opaque. Because starch does not dissolve, it cannot 
pass through the lining wall of the intestines and so must 
be changed in digestion before it can be absorbed. A 
ferment called ptj'^alin is found in the saliva, which is 
capable of acting on starch and changing it to sugar. 
There is an intermediate stage in this action, for the starch 



60 FOOD STUDY 

is first changed into dextrine. Dextrine is whitish like 
starch, but with iodine turns a beautiful wine red. Unhke 
starch, it is soluble in cold water. When starchy food is 
chewed saliva is mixed with it, and as the food lies in the 
fundus (or middle part) of the stomach the ptyalin has a 
chance to act on it. It used to be thought that this 
action stopped as soon as the food reached the stomach, for 
ptyalin cannot act in gastric juice, but it is now known 
that this change can go on for about two hours before the 
gastric juice is so mixed with the food that the action is 
stopped. Therefore it seems a somewhat important 
matter that such food should be chewed thoroughly and 
mixed with saliva and not swallowed whole or washed 
down with liquids. In the stomach, however, not all of 
the starch is digested. Probably most of it does not go 
beyond the dextrine stage. 

In the intestines there is another ferment, sometimes 
called amylopsin, which, like the ptyalin, can digest starch. 
We are, then, apparently, well equipped to digest starch, 
and this is fortunate, for starch forms a large proportion 
of the nutrients of our diet. 

Dextrine may also be formed by heating dry starch very 
hot, at least to 320° F. It is formed somewhat in toast, 
and in the crust of bread, and in browned flour, since in 
these cases the starch is exposed to intense heat. Some 
breakfast foods are partially dextrinized and this is sup- 
posed to make them more digestible. In reality, so small 
a percentage of the starch is changed that they are really 
not very different. . 

Browned flour does not possess the thickening power of 
ordinary flour because the dextrine in it dissolves instead 
of gelatinizing. Since heating with acids will dextrinize 
starch at a much lower temperature, and only a few drops 
of acid are necessary to bring this about, it is sometimes 



A 



\' . 



\' 



\. 



Pea Starch 



Bean Starch 






v,- 







•f 



'Ms',n, . 



V. 



'■Xi -> ^■ 




Buckwheat Starch Potato Starch 

Starch Grains, ]Magxified ]\Iaxy Toies 

From Leach's "Food Inspection and Analj^sis." 






II 



STARCH 61 

possible to obtain this result when it is unexpected and 
undesired. When a lemon filling for a pie or a boiled 
dressing that is made with flour are cooked too long or 
with too much acid, they may grow thinner instead of 
thicker as the cooking continues. So, also, if creamed 
oysters are kept hot too long a thick white sauce may 
become very thin. 

Reference 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Exp. Station Bulletin No. 202. "The 
Digestibility of Different Kinds of Starches ... as Affected 
by Cooking." 

Questions 

1. Wliere does a plant obtain the necessary elements to make 
starch ? How does it take in water ? How does it get carbon ? 

2. What purpose has the plant in manufacturing starch, and in 
what parts of plants would you expect to find the largest stores of it ? 

3. How is rice grown, and where do we obtain our largest supply? 

4. What is the composition of rice? Why is it not used as an 
exclusive diet ? 

5. What is the difference in price of different grades of rice, and 
to what is this due ? 

7. Why not bake rice as we do potatoes ? 



62 FOOD STUDY 

XI ^ 

RICE AND INDIAN PUDDINGS 
Cost of Breakfast Foods 
A. Prepare Rice Pudding. 



1 c. steamed rice 


1 tbsp. sugar 


^ c. butter 


J tsp. salt 


iegg 


2 tbsp. raisins 



Scald the milk, and add butter. Beat the egg with salt, 
add sugar, and pour the scalded milk over the mixture. 
Put into a buttered baking dish with rice and raisins. 
The raisins may be omitted and a little grated rind of a 
lemon used ; or cinnamon, ginger, or nutmeg. Molasses 
or maple syrup may be substituted for the sugar. Or : 

Prepare Indian Pudding. 

Use one tablespoon of Indian meal to one cup of milk 
and other ingredients in proportion. 

5 c. scalded milk ^ c. molasses 

^ c. Indian meal 1 tsp. salt 

1 tsp. ginger 

Pour the hot milk over the meal, and cook twenty minutes 
in a double boiler. Add the other ingredients, and bake 
very slowly in a buttered dish. 

B. Crisped Cereals. 

Examine and taste a " ready-to-eat " cereal as it is pur- 
chased. Place a little of it in a pan and put it for a moment 
in an oven ; compare with the portion not heated. 

C. Cost of Breakfast Foods. 

Take packages of well-known cereals. Determine how 
much of each must be used for one serving, then how many 



CELLULOSE 



63 



servings each package will give. Calculate the cost of a 
serving of each, and fill in the following table. 



Name of Cereal 



Cost 
OP Package 



Amount 
OF One 
Serving 



Number of 
Servings 

IN a 

Package 



Cost 

PER 

Serving 



Cost 

PER 

Ounce 



Cellulose 

Cellulose is the fiber which makes up part of the frame- 
work of vegetable foods. It has the same chemical com- 
position as starch, but is much less soluble, and human 
food contains only a small percentage of it. It is a form of 
carbohydrate which is of less importance to mankind than 
to animals. Wliile animals have ferments in the digestive 
tract which are capable of digesting cellulose, none with 
this power are secreted by man. Nevertheless, the scien- 
tists find that man digests some cellulose. This is one 
of the beneficial acts of bacteria present in the intestines. 
These bacteria are capable of acting on tender cellulose 
and changing it, perhaps into sugars and organic acids, 
in which forms it can be absorbed and burned as fuel to 
furnish the body with heat and muscular energy. Un- 
doubtedly some of the breaking down of the cellulose 
proceeds further than this, and hydrogen and other gases 
are produced which have no nutritive value. 



64 FOOD STUDY 

But not all forms of cellulose are easily enough broken 
down to have such changes occur. Cotton is a form 
of cellulose which would be absolutely without nutritive 
value. Such tender cellulose as is found in the cell walls 
of seeds like the cereals, and in vegetables, especially when 
young, is more capable of being digested. Still, it is 
probable that the less cellulose there is present in a vege- 
table food, the more digestible it is. This is probably the 
reason that rice is so easily digested, for it contains less 
cellulose than the other grains. 

Boiling in water does not change real cellulose at all, 
just as cotton clothes are not changed by boiling. But the 
cellulose cell walls of a plant are stiffened with other re- 
lated substances ; for one, with the pectose which changes 
to pectin. Cooking dissolves out some of these inter- 
cellular substances and also hydrates the starch, and so 
cooked vegetables are softened. Then, as has already been 
explained, by thorough cooking the cellulose walls may 
be ruptured by the swelling of the starch grains within the 
cells and so the contents exposed without its being neces- 
sary first to digest the cell walls. 

Some authorities believe that inert particles like cellu- 
lose are sufficiently rough to stimulate the intestines to 
peristaltic action, that is, to movements Avhich hasten the 
passage of food through the intestines and which are an 
aid in combating constipation. But, since foods are not 
laxative in proportion to the amount of cellulose they 
contain, others believe this action is due rather to the 
stimulus of certain salts which occur largely in the husks 
of the cereal ; and that it is due to the presence of these 
salts and not to the larger amount of cellulose in them that 
such articles of food as cracked wheat and graham bread 
are more laxative than those cereals which have undergone 
more extensive manufacturing processes. 



MINERAL AND ORGANIC SALTS 65 

Mineral and Organic Salts 

Mineral matter occurs not only in the teeth and bones, 
but in every tissue of the body and in all the fluids. It is 
necessary in all the vital processes. The principal mineral 
elements in the body are calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, 
potassium, phosphorus, chlorine, iodine, fluorine, silicon, 
and sulphur. These occur as compounds, forming both 
mineral and organic salts. Unlike carbohydrates, fats, 
and proteins, mineral salts are not changed in digestion 
nor are they oxidized, and so they do not furnish the body 
with energy. When organic matter is burned, these salts 
remain unconsumed as the ash. 

Mineral matter is present in all the digestive juices and 
plays its part in the digestion and absorption of foods. 
Mineral matter is dissolved in the blood and regulates its 
specific gravity and its alkalinity. It is found in all 
tissues, where it is concerned in metabolism.* Mineral 
matter, too, probably stimulates the contractions which 
cause the heart to beat. 

Since man excretes every day a large amount of mineral 
matter, this loss must be replaced. The necessary amount 
of mineral matter is found in an ordinary mixed diet. 
Common salt, sodium chloride, is the only mineral which 
is added to food, but it is probable that there would be 
enough of this furnished in the food of a mixed diet. In 
fact, it is possible that large quantities of salt are really 
bad for us rather than helpful. People, like the Esqui- 
maux, who are unaccustomed to its use easily detect the 
addition of an exceedingly small amount and dislike it, but 
those who are habituated to its use crave it. Salt seems 
to accentuate flavor. 

* Metabolism includes all the processes which food undergoes 
after it is digested and absorbed and before it is excreted. 



66 FOOD STUDY 

In the metabolism of proteins, mineral acids are formed 
which must be neutralized by such basic substances as 
sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, in order to 
preserve the alkalinity of the blood. As these basic 
elements are abundant in vegetables and fruits, it is neces- 
sary that the diet should contain liberal amounts of both 
and not consist too largely of meat. The modern diet is 
likely not to be well balanced in this respect, because it 
consists of liberal amounts of meat, fats, and sugar, all of 
which contain insignificant amounts of mineral salts. 

At first thought it seems strange that fruits should be 
added to prevent over-acidity when fruits themselves are 
acid ; but the acids present are organic acids, such as 
citric, malic, tartaric, and oxalic. Some of these are 
decomposition products of starch and are oxidized by the 
body to produce energy and are then given off as carbon 
dioxide and water, just as starch is metabolized. Mineral 
acids cannot be oxidized in the body and must be neutral- 
ized into salts and then excreted, and that is why they 
require basic elements with which to unite to become salts. 

It is important to remember the need for generous 
amounts of vegetables and fruit in the diet, for these often 
seem expensive materials in comparison wdth the amount 
of energy and of building material which they contain, and 
the poor are tempted to leave them entirely out of their 
rations. 

References 

Ohio Agri. Exp. Station (Wooster) Bulletin 201. "Mineral Ele- 
ments in Nutrition." 

Ohio Agri. Exp. Station (Wooster) Bulletin ''207. "The Balance 
between Inorganic Acids and Bases in Animal Nutrition." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 73, pp. 23-27. 
"Losses in Cooking Vegetables." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Office of Exp. Station Bulletin No. 43. 
"Losses in Boihng Vegetables." 



SETTING THE TABLE 67 

Journal of Home Economics, Vol. 4, No. 5, "Losses in Boiling Vege- 
tables. " 

Questions 

1. Are mineral elements so abundant in foods that they do not 
need to be taken into consideration in menu making ? 

2. What foods contain iron ? What special use has the body for 
this substance ? 

3. Why is milk so valuable a food for babies ? 

4. How may carelessness in preparation waste or lose the salts 
contained in foods ? 

5. Discuss the boiling, baking, and steaming of vegetables from 
this point of view. 

6. What uses may be made of the water in which vegetables have 
been cooked ? When is this worth while ? 

7. Do canned and dried vegetables retain their mineral salts ? 



XII 

REVIEV\^ LESSON 

Breakfast 
Prepare and Serve a Breakfast. 
Calculate the cost per person. 

Suggested menu : 

Fruit, fresh or stewed. 
Cereal, cooked or ready-to-eat. 
Eggs, boiled or poached. 
Serve with toast or bread. 

Milk. 

Setting the Table 

Scientists have established the fact that our state of 
mind when eating is an important matter, a sense of com- 



68 



FOOD STUDY 



fort and pleasure going far toward making a meal easily 
digested. It is imperative, then, to try to make the table 
as attractive as possible. Everything on the table must 
be scrupulously clean, so clean that there is no question 




i' 1 uin " Table Service," by Lucy G. Allen. 

Diagram of Breakfast Table 



about it. For this reason the use of a colored table-cloth, 
which was common at one time, is no longer tolerated. 
It is often difficult, especially with children, to keep all 
parts of a table-cloth unspotted. In that case it is well to 
consider the use of doilies which may be replaced as each 



SETTING THE TABLE 



69 




70 FOOD STUDY 

is soiled without greatly increasing the labor of washing. 
They are often preferred even in houses where cost and 
work are not a consideration, especially for the less formal 
meals. Often, only one fairly large doily is used at each 
place, but in more formal service or with a very highly 
polished table smaller doilies for the glass, cup and saucer, 
and bread-and-butter plate are also used. 

In many homes the table-cloth is not removed be- 
tween meals. This is usually unfortunate, because it 
is seldom possible to make the cloth appear as fresh 
as when all the wrinkles are shaken out. Often, 
not all the crumbs are removed. If the housekeeper 
is so busy that leaving the table set is a necessary 
practice, at least some clean outer covering should 
be spread over it to keep away the dust. A "silence 
cloth" is not only a comfort in lessening the noise, 
but it helps protect the table from hot dishes. 
It also greatly improves the appearance of the table- 
cloth and keeps it from wearing out so fast against the 
edge of the table. 

At each place the fork or forks are placed for conven- 
ience with the tines up and on the left of the plate ; for the 
same reason the knife or knives on the right with the sharp 
edge toward the plate. Knives and forks should be placed 
at such a distance that they give neither a crowded nor a 
sprawled-out appearance and are set about an inch from 
the edge of the table. Spoons, bowl up, are usually placed 
at the right of the knives ; occasionally, however, they are 
put at the top of the knives to save room. When much 
silver is to be used, the various kinds are sometimes ar- 
ranged according to size ; but it is better form, because less 
confusing, to arrange them in the order of use, placing 
those to be used first on the outside. Since the soup spoon 
is large and unmistakable, it is sometimes placed out of 



SETTING THE TABLE 71 

order between the knives and smaller spoons. The napkin 
should lie at the left of the forks unless for lack of room, 
then it may be placed between the knives and forks. The 
glass, right side up, at the end of the knife, and a butter 
plate or bread-and-butter plate, just back and a little 
to the left of the fork, usually completes the individual 
service except for the plate itself. This may or may not 
be in place when the meal begins. 

It is difficult to give general rules in regard to the dishes 
to be used. Some prefer to use plates under soup plates 
and cereal dishes, and consider that as these protect the 
table and table-cloth they are real labor savers. But, in 
general, the use of extra dishes is not best ; and vegetables, 
for example, should be served on the main plate unless 
they are so liquid that this would be unpleasant. 

If the food is to be served from the table, it should be so 
arranged that it can be reached as conveniently as possible 
by the one who is to serve. Near each dish should be 
placed the utensils which will be needed; these should 
not be used in common with another dish, and if the dishes 
are passed to allow each to serve himself, they should be 
passed with the dish so that no one is tempted to use his 
own fork or spoon. In serving, if very few people are 
present, ladies may be served first. Usually, however, it 
is now customary for the host or hostess to serve in order, 
beginning for the first course with the person on the right 
and at the next course with the person on the left. 

References 

Farmer. " Boston Cooking School Cook Book ", picture, page 592. 

Hill. "Up-to-Date Waitress." 

Larned. "Hostess of To-day." 

Allen. "Table Service." 

Wilson. "Handbook of Domestic Science ", pages 214-218. 



72 



FOOD STUDY 




From " Table Service," by Lucy G. Alien. 

Diagram of Table Laid for Home Dinner (Without Serv- 
ice OF Maid) 



SETTING THE TABLE 73 



Questions 

1. What is the principle underlying the arrangement of silver and 
dishes on the table ? 

2. Tell : a. Where should the napkin be placed while you are 

eating ? 

b. Should the napkin be laid on the table while it is 
being folded at the end of the meal ? 

c. Is it ever permissible not to fold the napkin ? 

d. Show the proper ways of using knife, fork, and spoon. 

e. Where should the knife and fork be placed in passing 
the plate for a second serving ? Why ? 

/. From what part of the spoon should we eat ? 

g. Why should the spoon not be left in the cup ? 

h. Why should a whole slice of bread not be spread 

at a time ? How should bread be eaten ? 
i. Discuss courteous ways of offering to serve another, of 

accepting or refusing. 

3. Why should dishes offered by a waitress always be passed to 
the left of the person seated? 

4. Why should finger bowls and tumblers not be filled too full of 
water ? 

5. In pouring a glass of water, why should the waitress avoid 
touching the rim of the glass ? Should the same precaution be taken 
in putting away glasses after washing ? 

6. What care must be taken in laying a table-cloth ? In folding it ? 

7. Why are doilies sometimes used in place of a table-cloth? At 
what meals are they most often used ? 

8. How should a napkin be folded when it is laundered ? 

9. What conditions modify the number of courses in which it is 
desirable to serve a meal ? 



74 FOOD STUDY 

XIII 
TEA 

Marshmallow Wafers 

A. Prepare Marshmallow Wafers. 

Dent a marshmallow by pressing on it, as hard as you 
can, with the handle of a knife. Put in this dent a piece 
of butter about the size of half a pea, and place the marsh- 
mallow on a square cracker laid on an unbuttered tin. 
Put it in the oven, until it puffs up and browns slightly. 
Remove from the oven, and, as it grows cold, place in the 
dent a piece of a candied cherry. 

Serve with tea. 

B. Weigh a Teaspoon of Tea. Allowing one tea- 
spoon of tea to one cup, what would each cup cost ? 

C. Green Tea. 

1 . To one-half teaspoon of tea add one-half cup of water 
which is hot, but not boiling. Let it stand three 
minutes. 

2. To one-half teaspoon of tea add one-half cup of boil- 
ing water, and boil, covered, for five minutes. 

3. To one-half teaspoon of tea add one-half cup of boil- 
ing water. Let it stand three minutes, and then 
strain about half of it from the leaves. 

4. Let the remainder from (3) steep twenty minutes 
and then strain. 

5. Pour one-half cup boiling water through one-half 
teaspoon of tea in a fine strainer or tea-ball. 

Compare 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, as to color, flavor, and 
strength. 



TEA 75 

Put a teaspoon of each into G^ve test tubes, add one-half 
teaspoon of ferrous sulphate solution and set aside until 
black precipitate settles. This precipitate shows the 
amount of tannin (a substance in tea liable to cause diges- 
tive disturbances) which is extracted from the tea by 
each method. 

D. Class Experiments. Black Tea. 
Repeat C, but use black instead of green tea. 
Judging from these experiments which method of making 

tea is best ? Why ? 

Compare the amounts of tannin in green and black tea. 

E. Make a Cup of Tea. 
Serve with the wafers. 

Tea 

Chinese tradition recognizes the use of tea since 2700 
B.C., but it was not used in England or on the Continent 
until the latter part of the seventeenth century, nor was 
it imported into America until 1711. In 1660 Pepys, an 
Englishman of some political and social experience, records 
in his diary the taking of his first cup of tea, which he ex- 
plains is a "China drink." Now England and Australia 
use large quantities of it per capita compared with its con- 
sumption in the United States. 

Tea comes to us mainly from China, Japan, Ceylon, and 
India. There has been an attempt, however, to grow it 
in our own country, and some is produced successfully in 
South Carolina. Tea is made from the leaves of a shrub 
called thea, which grows from three to six feet high. In 
order to obtain the best flavor only new, tender leaves and 
buds are used, but as these shrubs send out four sets of 
shoots a year, there are four harvests. There are different 



76 



FOOD STUDY 



grades and varieties of tea plants, but, in general, the tea 
from each country has a characteristic flavor. Great 
differences, however, are due to the age and size of the leaf. 
The two leaves nearest the tip are the choicest and make 
the real Flowery and Orange Pekoe ; but it is said the 
finest grades are so highly prized in their own countries 
that they are never sold in the United States. The leaves 




Tea Leaves 

a, Flowery Pekoe ; b, Orange Pekoe ; c, Pekoe ; d, Souchong 
(first); e, Souchong (second); /, Congou; h, Bohea. 



which grow farther and farther down the stem make less 
and less desirable teas. In selecting teas, then, the size 
of the uncurled leaves and their uniformity should be 
considered. The substitution of a larger leaf than the 
brand calls for, or the addition of tea "dust", or of too 
large a proportion of stems, are now the chief adultera- 
tions. 

There are two chief methods of preparing the leaves for 
market, and these affect not only the appearance but also 



TEA 77 

the flavor and the composition of the beverages made from 
them. It is these methods of preparation which give us 
black and green teas. The green color of the leaf is pre- 
served in green tea by drying the leaf by artificial heat and 
at a temperature high enough to destroy any ferments 
that are present. During the drying, constant stirring 
will cause the leaves to roll and curl. In making black tea, 
on the contrary, the leaves are only withered and left 
sufficiently moist to ferment before they are curled and 
dried thoroughly. This fermentation not only changes 
the color, but also somewhat affects the composition of 
the leaf. The exact process, number of dr>;ings, and so 
forth, differ in different localities. Formosa-oolong is a 
cross between black and green tea. It is a semi-fermented 
tea which appears black, but has the flavor of a green tea. 

Although the tea leaf is itself rich in protein, the infusion 
contains practically only caffein, tannin, and essential oils. 
None of these are in any sense food materials. Caffein, a 
stimulating substance also found in coffee, acts upon the 
nerves, producing a feeling of well-being, but it is this 
which prevents sleep if the drinker is unaccustomed to the 
drug. Caffein is so soluble that practically all of it is 
extracted from the leaves however the infusion is made. 
This is also true of the essential oils which give the charac- 
teristic flavor. These so-called oils are not really oils at 
all, but are chemical substances present in very small 
amounts, and are somewhat volatile. For this reason tea 
leaves should be kept in covered cans or jars. 

The bitter ingredient, tannin, is drawn out more and 
more if tea stands on its leaves, or is boiled. Tannin is 
disagreeable in taste, but, besides this, it may hinder the 
flow of digestive juices, and retard digestion. As a result 
of fermentation, black tea contains much less tannin and 
is usually recommended for that reason ; but it is some- 



78 FOOD STUDY 

what more stimulating than green tea, for it contains a 
little more caffein. Most people select the variety of tea 
they use merely by preference for its flavor without 
thought of composition. 

Individuals differ greatly in their sensitiveness to the 
stimulants in tea, as well as to the tannin. Children are 
always much more easily affected than adults, and should 
not be allowed to take any stimulating drink. Authorities 
say that no one should touch tea or coffee until over thirty. 
Nervous people, of course, are most prone to notice bad 
effects from the caffein, and those with weak digestions 
may be troubled by the amount of tannin which even well- 
made tea contains. 

References 

Freeman and Chandler. **World's Commercial Products." 

Questions 

1. What is a beverage? 

2. What is a decoction? An infusion? Wliich should tea be? 
What is meant by steeping ? 

3. Make a drawing of a tea leaf, and a sketch of a tea plant. 

4. Make lists of some of the best varieties of both black and green 
tea with their present prices. 

5. What ought you to expect to pay for good tea? For fancy 
varieties ? 

6. How can the effects of tea-drinking be minimized ? 

7. Should the use of tea be encouraged? What people should 
avoid its use entirely ? 

8. Why should a teapot be scalded immediately before making 
tea in it ? 



COFFEE 79 

XIV 

COFFEE 
Cheese Wafers 

A. Prepare Cheese Wafers. 

Sprinkle grated cheese, seasoned slightly with salt and 
paprika, on thin crackers, and heat them in the oven 
until the cheese melts. 

Serve with coffee. 

B. Cost of Coffee. Determine the number of cups 
a pound of coffee will make, allowing one rounding 
tablespoon of ground coffee to each cup. 

C. Class Experiments. Making Coffee. 

1. Mix one rounding tablespoon of coffee with one- 
half teaspoon of egg white and one tablespoon of 
cold water. Add one cup of boiling water. Boil 
three minutes and let stand in a w^arm place or over 
hot water for five minutes. 

2. Repeat (1), omitting the egg. Why is the egg 
used ? 

3. Repeat (1), using one tablespoon of egg white. 
Compare carefully the resulting coffee for color and 
flavor with that made in (1). Can too much egg be 
used? 

4. Repeat (1), omitting the egg, but adding one table- 
spoon of cold water after boiling. Compare care- 
fully with (1) and (2). What is the use of the cold 
water ? 

5. Repeat (1), omitting the egg, but tying the coffee 
in a piece of cheesecloth. 



80 



FOOD STUDY 



B. Percolated and Drip Coffee. 

Coffee made by these methods may be compared with 
that made by boiUng. 



Coffee 

The coffee bean is the seed of a fruit resembUng a cherry. 
Coffee grows on an evergreen tree, originally a native of 

Arabia, but now cul- 
tivated in nearly all 
tropical countries. 
The berries are pro- 
duced three times a 
year. They are 
picked and allowed 
to ferment to soften 
the pulp which is later 
removed. This leaves 
a husk which encloses 
two berries with their 
flat sides next each 
other.. After the re- 
moval of the pulp the 
husk is dried and 
broken open and the 
berries released. 
These raw berries are exported to the countries in which 
they are to be used, and then roasted to develop flavor 
and to make them brittle for grinding. After washing 
they are sold either ground or unground. As after grind- 
ing they lose flavor somewhat quickly, the housewife usu- 
ally buys either the whole berries and grinds them as 
she uses them, or gets the grocer to grind the whole for 
her, or else she buys ground coffee in air-tight cans. 




Coffee Berry and Leaf. 



COFFEE 81 

Mocha, Java, and Brazilian coffees are the three prin- 
cipal kinds. The first two are used as trade names for 
coffees having special characteristics and do not signify 
the place of production. Most coffee comes from South 
America, largely from Brazil. Differences of flavor are 
due partly to differences in variet}^, but are largely the 
result of differences in the maturity of the berries when 
gathered and in the length of time they are roasted. 
Berries are picked green, or left to turn red, or ripen fully 
to a purple. Rio, a brand which is very familiar, is a 
Brazilian coffee. Brazilian coffees cost less than Java. 
Mocha is most expensive. A mixture of Mocha and Java 
is a general favorite. 

Perhaps the most economical way to purchase coffee is to 
buy the roasted bean in five- or ten-pound bags and store 
in tins until needed. The whole beans bought in bulk cost 
less than the coffees sold in pound tins. The crispness 
of the bean and the aroma tell whether the coffee is suffi- 
ciently fresh to be good. The flavor of old coffee can be 
somewhat improved by spreading it out well and re- 
roasting in an oven. 

The beverage coffee is chemically much like tea. It con- 
tains caffein and essential oil and tannin, but the tannin 
is in a somewhat different form and is perhaps less objec- 
tionable. While the percentage of caffein in the bean is 
less than in tea leaves, so much more coffee is used in 
making a cup of the beverage that a cup of coffee contains 
about as much caffein as three-quarters of a cup of tea. 
Coffee, then, like tea, should be avoided by the nervous, 
by those who have digestive disturbances, and by children. 
Cream or milk in coffee and tea seem to render it less 
digestible to some people. Individuals differ greatly in 
their sensitiveness to tea and coffee. Some are much more 
affected by one than by the other ; some are sensitive to 



82 FOOD STUDY 

both. It is easy to find out how much one is stimulated. 
Those unaccustomed to coffee can see whether it makes 
them feel nervous or produces sleeplessness or indigestion. 
But coffee drinking becomes a habit and no great effect 
may be noticed. If, however, the individual accustomed 
to it will try going without, he can soon tell whether it 
was affecting him. If he has headache, or is unduly 
sleepy and dull, he may be sure he has been depending on 
coffee as a stimulant. 

A small cup of black coffee taken at the end of a hearty 
meal sometimes acts as a promoter of digestion. This 
usually signifies that the person benefited has eaten too 
much and would be better off if he ate less and went with- 
out the coffee. 

References 

Freeman and Chandler. "World's Commercial Products." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 122. "Coffee 



Substitutes." 



Questions 



1. Where is coffee grown? How prepared for the market? 

2. What varieties of coffee are on your local market ? 

3. What do these varieties cost? What is a reasonable price to 
pay for a good coffee ? 

4. Why does an egg settle coffee ? Why are egg shells sometimes 
used? If the shells are to be used for this pm-pose, when should 
they be washed ? 

5. Explain why cold water settles coffee. 

6. Is coffee a decoction or an infusion ? 

7. Describe the care which should be taken of a coffee pot. 

8. Name some of the coffee substitutes. From what are these 
usually made? How does their cost compare with that of coffee? 



COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 83 

XV 

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 

Oatmeal Cookies 

A. Prepare Oatmeal Cookies. 
Use one-eighth of the recipe : 

^ c. sugar i tsp. salt 

I tbsp. melted butter 1 tsp. vanilla 

1 egg 1 c. rolled oats 

1 tsp. baking powder 

Mix the dry ingredients and add the egg beaten slightly 
and the melted butter. Drop from a teaspoon on a 
buttered tin. Bake from five to seven minutes in a slow 
oven (365° F.). 

B. Class Experim.ents. Making Cocoa. 

1. Try mixing one teaspoon of cocoa with cold water. 

2. Try mixing one teaspoon of cocoa with boiling 
water. 

3. Try mixing one teaspoon of cocoa slowly with boil- 
ing water. 

4. Try mixing one teaspoon of cocoa with one-half tea- 
spoon of sugar, then add boiling water. 

Make Cocoa. Mix as seems best from the results 
of B. Use : 

1 tsp. cocoa I c. water 

I tsp. sugar I c. milk 

A few grains of salt 
A few drops of vanilla, if desired 

Mix cocoa, salt, sugar, and water, and boil one 
minute. Add milk and boil until it begins to 



si FOOD STUDY 

froth. Remove at once. Let half of this stand 
a few moments. Beat the other half with an egg- 
beater or a wire whisk until it foams. What is 
the advantage of "milling" (beating)? 

C. Prepare Chocolate. 

Use the same proportions as for cocoa, but use a weight 
of chocolate equal to the weight of the teaspoon of cocoa. 
Melt the chocolate with sugar in a saucepan over hot 
water, add boiling water slowly, stirring until smooth. 
Then boil one minute, add milk, and proceed as in making 
cocoa. Serve with cookies. 

When would it be better in making cocoa and choco- 
late to scald the milk first? 

Cocoa and Chocolate 

The cocoa tree, a native of tropical American countries, 
produces a pod from seven to ten inches long, and shaped 
somewhat like a thick cucumber. In the pod are found 
from twenty to forty beans from which chocolate and cocoa 
are manufactured. The pods are harvested twice a year, 
the beans being freed from the pod and allowed to ferment. 
This fermentation is carried on very carefully, for upon it 
depends the development of the flavor. Drying in the 
air changes the color of the bean from white to red. 
Roasting changes the beans further and loosens the husk, 
which is removed and sold as cocoa-shells, to be boiled 
with water for a beverage. The part of the bean under 
the husk is called the nib. This is sometimes crushed and 
put on the market as cracked cocoa, but more often is 
ground and molded into a cake which is known as bitter or 
cooking chocolate ; or, mixed with sugar, as sweet choco- 
late. The latter is often flavored, usually with vanilla. 



COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 



85 



Cocoa is made from chocolate by the removal of part 
of the fat, approximately fifty per cent. The fat, in 
American manufacture, is merely pressed out and, as cocoa 
butter, forms a valuable trade product. Dutch manufac- 
turers treat the chocolate with alkali in the process of mak- 
ing cocoa and add some spice, usually cinnamon, as well as 
vanilla. So-called "soluble cocoas" are merely those 
which are finely 
ground and so remain 
in suspension a longer 
time. 

Cocoa, as a bever- 
age, differs from tea 
and coffee in being 
fairly nutritious. As 
larger amounts of 
milk or cream are 
usually used in its 
preparation, this, too, 
increases the food 
value. Cocoa con- 
tains tannin, but in 
a quite different form 
from that found in 
tea, and its stimulat- 
ing ingredient, theo- 
bromin, although like caffein in its effects, is much milder. 
However, there is something of a reaction against the too 
free use of chocolate and cocoa, even in cases when the 
large amount of fat in chocolate does not cause trouble. 
Doctors caution some invalids and children against the 
use of chocolate. Many who do not feel stimulated by 
it notice the diuretic effect. Still, chocolate is probably 
much to be preferred to tea and coffee as a beverage, 




Cocoa Pod and Beans 



86 FOOD STUDY 

particularly as we are not likely to demand it with the 
same frequency. 

Condiments and Flavoring Extracts 

Substances possessing practically no nutritive value, but 
consumed either for their stimulating effects or for their 
flavor, are known as food adjuncts. Tea and coffee belong 
under this head, as do condiments which increase the appe- 
tite and stimulate the flow of digestive juices. Condi- 
ments are largely aromatic fruits, seeds, and leaves, con- 
taining volatile oils. Little children are considered better 
off without spiced foods, as natural, unstimulated appetite 
is the best guide to the amount of food which should be 
eaten. Then, too, the spices which are preservatives may 
hinder digestion and so cause difficulty. The flavorings 
vanilla, orange, and lemon are usually considered harmless. 

Allspice. The fruit of an evergreen tree which grows 

in the West Indies and belongs to the 
same family as the clove. The fruit is 
gathered when it is full grown, but before 
it is ripe, and is dried in the sun. The 
name comes from the supposed resem- 
blance in taste to a mixture of cinnamon, 
clove, and nutmeg. 

Anise, coriander, cumin, dill, and fennel, are all 

fruits of various plants. 

Bayleaf, marjoram, mint, and summer savory 

are dried herbs. 

Capers. These are the flower buds of the caper 

bush. They are picked and dried, and 
stored in vinegar, but afterwards re- 
moved and packed for shipping without 
the vinegar. 



CONDIMENTS 



87 



Caraway. 



Cayenne. 



Cinnamon. 



Clove. 



Ginger. 



Horse-radish. 



These so-called seeds are the fruit of a 
plant growing in northern and central 
Europe and Asia ; it is also cultivated in 
this country, especially in California. 
Cayenne or red-pepper is the fruit of the 
capsicum, not a true pepper, several 
species of which are grown in the tropics. 
They belong to the same family as the 
potato and tomato. 

True cinnamon is the inner bark of a plant 
native to Ceylon. Cassia is a thicker 
bark, resembling cinnamon in flavor, but 
less delicate, coming from India, China, 
and the East Indies. Much so-called 
cinnamon is really cassia. Both have a 
right to the botanical name cinnamon. 
The flower buds of an evergreen grown 
largely in Zanzibar, British East India, 
and the West Indies. The buds are 
dried in the sun or treated with wood 
smoke. Dark, well-formed cloves are 
best. Ground cloves deteriorate more 
quickly than do whole cloves. 
The root of a plant native to southern 
Asia. The plant, not unlike the iris in 
appearance, grows freely in moist places in 
tropical countries. The root is gathered 
when the stem withers, is scalded, or 
washed and scraped, to prevent sprouting, 
and is sometimes bleached. Preserved, 
Canton, and crystallized ginger are made 
from young roots. 

This is the root of a plant related to the 
cress or nasturtium family. It is ground 



88 



FOOD STUDY 



Mace. 
Mustard. 



Nutmeg. 
Paprika. 

Pepper. 



Salt. 



for use, and is sometimes mixed with 
vinegar. 

This spice is made from the covering 
which surrounds the nutmeg seed. 
The product is ground from the seeds of 
various species of the mustard plant. 
The hulls may or may not be removed. 
Unground white mustard seeds are fre- 
quently used in pickling. French mus- 
tard is prepared by mixing ground mus- 
tard with vinegar and other flavoring 
materials, such as garlic and spices. 
Nutmegs are the dried seeds of a tree 
which resembles the orange. The tree is 
native to the Malayan Archipelago. 
This is prepared by grinding the ripe fruit 
of the capsicum, carefully excluding seeds 
and stem. This gives a product which is 
far less peppery than Cayenne. 
The fruit of the pepper plant, a climbing 
perennial shrub, grown in the East and 
West Indies. The unripe peppercorns 
make black pepper. The ripe pepper, 
with the husk removed, is ground into 
white pepper. 

Table salt is composed largely of sodium 
chloride, usually with other mineral 
matter, such as calcium sulphate. Traces 
of calcium and magnesium chloride may 
also be present. In the United States, 
nine-tenths of all the salt produced comes 
from New York, Ohio, Michigan, and 
Kansas. Salt is obtained by mining rock 
salt, from salt wells, or by the evapora- 



EXTRACTS 89 

tion of salt water from the ocean or from 
salt lakes. Salt produced in the third 
way must be refined by re-dissolving in 
water and then re-crystallizing. 
Vinegar. In the United States, vinegar means the 

product resulting from the fermentation 
of apple juice. This is sometimes called 
apple or cider vinegar, but various vine- 
gars made from other materials may also 
be sold under their appropriate names ; 
as wine vinegar, malt vinegar, and grain 
or spirit vinegar. 

Extracts 

Extracts are solutions in alcohol of the volatile oils 
and other substances which give the characteristic flavors 
to various plants. Extracts of many varieties are on the 
market, but vanilla, lemon, orange, and almond are, per- 
haps, the most commonly used. 

Vanilla is a bean from a climbing vine, native to tropical 
America. The beans grow in a pod which is allowed to 
ferment after it is picked. Then the beans are dried for 
market. To make extract they are cut up and extracted 
with alcohol. Sugar is sometimes added. The Tonka 
bean has a similar flavor. 

Lemon and orange extracts are prepared by soaking 
the peel of the fruits in strong alcohol. 

Almond extract is made from the oil of bitter almonds. 
This oil may be obtained not only from bitter almonds but 
also from the seeds of apricots and peaches. 

All spices and extracts sold in interstate commerce must 
conform to certain fixed standards prescribed by Federal 
laws. Many states also prescribe standards. 



90 FOOD STUDY 



References 

"History and Use of Cocoa and Chocolate." Walter Baker & Co. 

Ltd., Dorchester, Mass. 
"The Chocolate Plant." Walter Baker & Co. Ltd. 
Olsen. "Pure Foods." 

Questions 

1. Is it economical to buy a sweetened cocoa and pay as much per 
pound as for ordinary cocoa ? 

2. Which costs most per pound, chocolate or cocoa ? 

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages in using cocoa in 
place of chocolate in making f rostings, cakes, and the like ? 

4. Is it easier to melt or grate chocolate for such use ? 

5. How do cocoa and chocolate compare in food value with tea 
and coffee ? 



XVI 

FREEZING 

Water Ices 
Sherbet 

A. Class Experiments. A Study of Freezing 
Mixtures. 

1. Prepare a small bowl of : 

a. cracked ice. 

b. mixture of one part of salt to one part of ice. 

c. mixture of one part of salt to seven parts of ice. 

d. mixture of one part of salt to ten parts of ice. 
Insert a thermometer in each bowl as soon as the ice 
and salt are mixed and find the lowest temperature 
obtainable in each case, also the length of time neces- 
sary to obtain this temperature. 



FREEZING 91 

2. Effect of different freezing mixtures. 

Prepare a syrup, using two tablespoons of sugar to 
one-half cup of water. Pour into four test tubes. 
Prepare bowls as in (1) and insert one of the test tubes 
in each. Compare the time required to freeze, and 
the textures of the frozen syrups. Which freezing 
mixture will you use to freeze an ice or a sherbet ? 

3. Insert in a freezing mixture of one part of salt to 
seven parts of ice test tubes containing : 

a. a tablespoon of water. 

h. a tablespoon of water and a saltspoon of ground 
spice. 

c. a tablespoon of syrup (one part sugar to four 
parts of water). 

d. a tablespoon of syrup (one part sugar to one 
part of water). 

e. a tablespoon of stiffly beaten white of egg. 
Notice the time necessary to freeze and the texture of 
each. Take the temperature of each when frozen. 
What is the effect of suspended and dissolved sub- 
stances on the freezing point of water ? 

B. Prepare Lemon Ice. 

Boil two tablespoons of sugar with half a cup of water to 
make a syrup. Add one tablespoon of lemon juice. Cool, 
pour into a tin measuring cup or similar container, cover, 
and surround with ice and salt. (What proportion will you 
use ?) Stir while freezing. 

C. Class Work. Prepare Lemon Sherbet. 
Prepare a syrup, using the same proportions as in {B) 

but make enough to serve the whole class. Freeze in a 
regular freezer. 

1. Use two teaspoons of gelatine for every quart of 
liquid. Soak the gelatine in a little cold water, while 



92 FOOD STUDY 

the syrup is cooking. Then pour the hot syrup over 
it. Add lemon in the same proportion given in (B) 
and strain. Grated lemon peel may be added. 

Or: 

2. When syrup is cool, mix in stiffly beaten white of 
egg, using one-half to one egg white for each cup of 
liquid. Add lemon as before. 

Freezing Mixtures 

Without a knowledge of physics it is rather difficult to 
understand how ice and salt act as a freezing mixture. In 
order to understand it at all we must know some prelimi- 
nary facts. In the first place, the subject of energy must be 
considered. Cold is not a thing in itself, but merely the 
absence of heat. Heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and 
motion are all forms of energy and can be transformed one 
into another. Electricity in our lamps, for example, is 
changed into light and also gives off heat. In an electric 
flat-iron, heat is produced without any light at all. The 
heat of the fuel is, in a locomotive, turned into the motion 
which carries the train along. It is well-known, too, that 
some substances, as a piece of hard rubber such as is found 
in a fountain pen, can easily be electrified on a cold day by 
rubbing briskly on a woollen surface and that they will then 
attract bits of paper. These are all cases where one form 
of energy is turned into another ; and it is a law in physics 
that no energy is ever destroyed, but continues to exist. 
When a solid like ice is changed into a liquid like water, or a 
liquid such as water is changed into a gas such as water 
vapor, heat is necessary for the change. This is said to be 
used up in performing work and is spoken of as hidden, or 
latent heat. 

The same kind of action is illustrated by boiling water. 



FREEZING MIXTURES 93 

The temperature of the water rises until the boihng point 
is reached, but no further appHcation of heat will raise the 
temperature above this point. This is because as fast as 
the heat is supplied it is used up in turning the water into 
steam ; the more the heat supplied, the more steam there 
is formed, but the temperature of the steam itself is the 
same as that of the water from which it comes. But when 
it is said that the heat is used up, it is not meant that it is 
destroyed ; for if the vapor be changed back to water, or 
the water to ice, the energy again manifests itself and 
appears as heat. 

A second point to be understood is what is shown by the 
freezing experiments : a liquid that has another substance 
dissolved in it no longer freezes at the same temperature, 
but at a lower one. The more substance there is dissolved, 
the lower the freezing point becomes. 

Now what happens when the ice and salt are mixed that 
makes the two so much colder than before ? The ice is at 
32° F. and the salt much warmer, but as soon as they are 
mixed the temperature falls rapidly. What occurs is this. 
The ice and salt which are next each other are mixed to 
form brine. But brine, being really water with salt dis- 
solved in it, should not freeze at 32° but at a much lower 
temperature. If it cannot be frozen, the ice must melt. 
But, as has already been said, heat is necessary to bring 
this about. The only available heat is in the mixture itself 
or the surrounding objects with which it comes into con- 
tact. This heat is used up in doing the work of melting the 
ice and becomes latent, — that is, disappears and is no 
longer evident as heat. Some heat also is used in doing 
the work of dissolving the salt in the water. As a result 
of these two actions the temperature of the mixture drops. 

There are certain substances which conduct heat readily. 
It is well known how hard it is to hold the end of a metal 



94 FOOD STUDY 

spoon while the other end is in boihng water. No diffi- 
culty is experienced, if a wooden spoon is used. Wood, 
then, is a poor conductor of heat and metal a good one. 

An ordinary ice-cream freezer has a container made of 
metal. This is so that the heat in the cream can easily 
be "conducted" to the freezing mixture to be used up in 
melting the ice and so disappear. On the other hand, the 
outside tub of the freezer is usually of wood. That is in 
order to keep the heat of the air from being easily con- 
ducted into the freezing mixture, lest this heat be used 
instead of that in the cream which is to be frozen. The 
difficulty with the wooden tub is that as it stands unused 
it is apt to shrink and then leak, and, besides, it is heavy and 
clumsy. So some ice-cream freezers have a metal outside. 
They undoubtedly take a little more ice and salt to do the 
work, but otherwise are quite satisfactory. 

References 

Agri. Exp. Sta., Burlington, Vt. **The Principles and Practice of Ice 
Cream Making." 

Questions 

1. Why does an ice-cream freezer have a dasher? 

2. Which is cheaper, ice or salt ? How does this point affect the 
choice of the proportions of ice and salt to be used in a freezing mix- 
ture? 

3. What proportion of ice and salt would you use for chilling ? 

4. How is ice cream packed and how is it covered for keeping ? 

5. Can you make an ice cream or an ice mixture so sweet it will 
not freeze ? Why ? 

6. Can snow be used to make a freezing mixture instead of ice ? 

7. Could ice have been frozen as readily in a glass cup as in a tin 
cup ? Explain. 

8. Explain why cologne rubbed on the forehead feels cool. 

9. There are pressure cookers on the market which boil at a tem- 
perature above 212° F. These cookers are of metal with a cover 
which screws or clamps tightly into place, preventing the escape of the 



RECEPTION 95 

steam until the pressure reaches a certain degree, when an auto- 
matic escape valve opens. The steam pressing on the surface of the 
water prevents the ready formation of more steam. Why does the 
temperature of the water then rise above that of ordinary boihng 
water? 

XVII 

RECEPTION 

Candied Fruit Peel 

Marguerites 

Sandwiches 

Hold a Reception. 

Prepare bread-and-butter or jelly sandwiches, candied 
fruit peel, and marguerites or marshmallow crackers, 
cocoa or tea, or coffee, as desired. 

1. Candied Fruit Peel. 

Wash and remove the skin of an orange or grape 
fruit. Boil in water until tender. If the peel is 
very oily, the water may be changed during the pro- 
cess. When the peel is soft, scrape off some of the 
inside white and cut the peel into even, narrow 
strips. Make a syrup, using half a cup of sugar and 
an equal amount of the water in which the peel was 
cooked. Add the peel and cook until the syrup is 
nearly evaporated, stirring. Drain the peel and roll 
it in granulated sugar. Let it dry before serving. 

2. Marguerites. 

12 wafers i tsp. vanilla 

1 egg white 2 c. chopped nuts or raisins or 
^ tsp. salt the two mixed 

2 tbsp. powdered sugar 



96 FOOD STUDY 

Mix the salt with the egg, and beat until very stiff. 
Add the other ingredients, and spread on wafers. 
Heat in a moderate oven until a delicate brown. 

3. Sandwiches. 

In cutting bread for sandwiches, cut the slices as 
thinly and evenly as possible. The crusts may or 
may not be removed. If they are cut off, save them 
to use as bread crumbs. If the butter is creamed 
before using, it will spread more easily. After the 
slices are put together, they may be cut in squares, 
oblongs, or triangles. Sandwiches cut in rounds are 
rather wasteful, unless the original loaf was a cylinder. 
In order to prevent drying, sandwiches should be 
wrapped in a dry cloth with a damp one outside, 
until just before serving. 

Receptions 

Going to a reception sometimes seems a formidable 
undertaking to one not used to it, but in reality it is a 
simple affair for the guest. If the reception is formal and 
the invitation "requests the pleasure of your company", a 
reply must be sent in like form. But if the reception 
card is informal as that for an " at home ", and if the invita- 
tion is to be accepted, unless the invitation says "please 
reply" or "R.S.V.P.", which is an abbreviation for the 
French words meaning the same thing, it is not necessary 
to respond. If one cannot attend, a calling card should be 
mailed or sent to the hostess. If more than one name ap- 
pears on the invitation, a man sends one calling card for 
each person, a woman one for each woman, but all are 
merely enclosed in the one envelope and directed to the 
hostess. Nothing is written upon the cards. 



RECEPTIONS 97 

The guest may appear at any convenient time during 
the hours set. Hat and gloves are worn at an afternoon 
reception, but coats are ordinarily removed. Hats are not 
worn at an evening affair. 

The guest shakes hands first with the hostess, then with 
any others who may be standing with her. Whether any 
chatting may be done depends upon the number of guests 
waiting for a chance to speak to the receiving line. After 
mingling with the others for a few moments, one may be 
invited to go to the dining room, or in the case of very in- 
formal affairs left to find one's own way out. After being 
served, one may chat again with friends, or go directly 
to the receiving line to say good-by, and express one's 
pleasure. Before leaving the house, cards are left, the 
same rules applying as if they were sent. 

An invitation to a reception is supposed to necessitate a 
call upon the hostess afterwards, but at the present time 
this rule is generally disregarded unless the invitation has 
not been accepted. 

The hostess is busy receiving her guests, so that it is 
necessary that she be relieved of other cares. At informal 
affairs friends are asked to pour at tables or to serve, 
sometimes to invite to the dining room. Those assisting 
do not wear hats. In some places it is a pretty custom to 
pin favors, a flower or a knot of ribbon, to each guest as 
he is served, so that no one shall be overlooked. 

References 

Farmer. " Boston Cooking-School Cook Book," illustration 
opposite p. 601. 

Questions 

1. Wliat is the chief difference in the arrangement of the table for 
a meal and for a reception ? 



98 FOOD STUDY 

2. If you were instructing a person ignorant of how to behave at a 
reception, what points would you make ? 

3. Write a formal invitation and acceptance for a reception. 

4. Under what circumstances do you send a card to a reception ? 
When do you leave a card ? 



XVIII 

COMBUSTION AND FUELS 

Scalloped Potatoes 

A. Prepare Scalloped Potatoes. 

Wash, pare, and cut a potato into very thin slices. Put 
in layers in a baking dish. Season each layer with salt 
and butter, and pepper if desired. Cover with milk, and 
bake in a slow oven until the potato is soft. 

B. Class Experiments. 1. Fuels. 

Take a narrow test tube and fill it two-thirds full 
of wood — the stems of matches will do. Heat, 
holding it cautiously in a flame. As smoke 
escapes, put a lighted match in the smoke and 
see if it can be set on fire. Notice the black 
residue left in the tube. This is charcoal. 

2. Is air necessary to combustion? 

Lower a candle or a burning splinter of wood 
into a bottle of air and cover as closely as pos- 
sible. Does it continue to burn ? 

3. What is formed when fuel burns ? 

a. Hold a cold glass tumbler for a moment 
over a burning candle. Observe whether 
moisture forms on the inside of the glass. 

b. Burn a candle or a piece of wood in a 
covered bottle till flame is extinguished. 



COMBUSTION AND FUELS 99 

Remove the candle or wood quickly and 
pour in a little lime water, and shake it 
around. Does it become milky? Try 
lime water in a clean bottle of air. Carbon 
dioxide is the gas which turns lime water 
milky. 
c. It is commonly said that food acts as fuel 
in the body. See if the " products of com- 
bustion", water and carbon dioxide, can be 
detected in the air breathed out. 
Test as follows : 

(1) Breathe on a cold pane of glass. Does 
moisture collect ? 

(2) Breathe through a glass tube or a 
lemonade straw into lime water. Do 
we breathe out carbon dioxide ? 

Combustion and Fuels 

When the word combustion is used, it ordinarily means 
burning, that is, the union of a substance with the oxygen 
of the air with such rapidity that both heat and light are 
produced. But in order to have this combustion take 
place, it is necessary to have something more than a com- 
bustible substance and oxygen. Wood is a combustible 
substance, but it does not burn unless it is sufficiently 
heated to " take fire." Not all materials have to be heated 
to the same degree to make them burn, and the point to 
which each must be heated is called the kindling tempera- 
ture of the substance. Phosphorus has a low kindling 
temperature and can easily be set on fire by the heat of 
friction ; that is why it is used on the heads of matches. 

Most combustible substances contain both carbon and 
hydrogen as well as a little oxygen. When they are burned 



100 FOOD STUDY 

in the air the carbon unites with the oxygen to make carbon 
dioxide, and the hydrogen with oxygen to form water, 
oxygen from the air being used in the process. The com- 
mon fuels are inexpensive substances which are largely 
composed of these three elements. Foods, too, contain 
the same elements in large amounts. When food is 
burned in the body the process is a much slower one than 
ordinary burning and no light at all is produced, but the 
heat maintains the body temperature. Some fuels, like 
some foods, have nitrogen in them, but this does not help in 
the production of heat. The elements in fuels and foods 
are put together so differently, however, that they are 
entirely unlike in their nature, and the body could not burn 
coal or wood instead of food. 

The fuels that are most widely used in this country are 
wood, coal, kerosene, and gas. Wood is becoming so expen- 
sive and requires so much space for storage, that, in cities, 
it is used only in starting a coal fire. In country districts 
where wood is cheap, wood stoves are still in common use. 
Wood must be set on fire by piling it on top of burning 
paper, straw, or shavings. Such kindling is not sufficiently 
hot to set fire to coal, so, in laying the coal fire, both paper 
and wood are used. Wood is roughly divided into two 
classes, hard and soft; the first is desirable when long- 
continued, steady heat is necessary ; the other for quick, 
hot fires. For kindling, soft wood must, of course, be 
chosen. The usual way of selling wood is by the cord, 
which consists of one hundred and twenty-eight cubic feet. 

Coal is of two general kinds, anthracite or hard coal, 
containing about ninety per cent of carbon and very little 
gas, and bituminous or soft coal which contains gas and 
burns with considerable flame. The latter variety is 
dirty to handle and gives off much soot. It costs less by 
the ton, however, than hard coal, especially in some parts 



COMBUSTION AND FUELS 101 

of the country, so it is often commonly used. A fire made 
with it requires more frequent attention than one made 
with hard coal, and when this and the cost of the cleaning 
and laundering which it necessitates, as well as the wear 
that this extra laundering means for fabrics, are all taken 
into account, it is doubtful whether the use of soft coal is 
really cheaper. Coal is sold by the ton ; a long ton is 
2240 pounds, a short ton only 2000 pounds. 

Kerosene is also a much-used fuel, and in the blue-flame 
stoves a very satisfactory one. It is one of the oils present 
in petroleum, a mixture of natural oils found in the ground 
in large quantities in some parts of the country. In order 
to be sure that the more inflammable oils are not left in 
the kerosene, in most states the quality is regulated by a 
requirement that the flashing point shall not be below a 
certain temperature. The flashing point is the tempera- 
ture at which the vapor from the kerosene will catch fire 
or flash. The kerosene itself does not burn, and the vapor 
only for an instant. The temperature required below 
which the vapor must not flash varies from 110° F. to 
200° F., the latter meaning a very high-grade oil. Prob- 
ably 149° F. is sufficiently safe, but as all kerosene is 
explosive, care must be taken in its use. Stoves and lamps 
should be filled only by daylight and never when they 
are lighted or hot. Kerosene is sometimes poured on a 
fire of coal or wood to act as kindling, and there have been 
many accidents from such use. Safety requires that it 
should never be used in kindling. The danger lies in 
pouring it on after the fire is started, or when there are 
hot ashes in the bed of the fire. 

Gas is a much cleaner fuel to use than any of those 
already mentioned. There are many varieties. Natural 
gas, like kerosene, is found in the ground in certain parts 
of the country. Its cost is much below that of artificial 



102 FOOD STUDY 

gas. The latter gas is made by two different methods, 
one giving us coal gas, the other water gas. Coal gas is 
obtained by heating coal, usually semi-bituminous, in 
retorts so as to drive off the gas which it contains. Water 
gas is made by passing steam over heated coal ; then this is 
enriched by the addition of other gases in order to make it 
more efficient. Any gas is dangerous, because, when it is 
mixed with a certain amount of air, it becomes explosive, 
and because some of the gases present, if they escape un- 
burned, are highly poisonous. Water gas is particularly 
poisonous. Leaks in gaspipes should not be neglected. 
A light should never be taken into a room where there is a 
strong smell of gas, windows and doors should be opened, 
and, if necessary, the gas should be turned off from the 
whole house by the main stopcock near the meter. The 
surest way to detect small leaks is to paint over the sus- 
pected places with strong soapsuds, and notice where bub- 
bles are blown. 

Acetylene is another sort of gas used for fuel in special 
stoves. It is manufactured, usually on a small scale, by 
the automatic dropping of calcium carbide into water. 
The gas requires special burners, but gives a brilliant light. 
It seems still to be a matter of dispute whether it is highly 
poisonous as well as explosive. 

Gasoline gas, sometimes called air gas, is made by pump- 
ing air through gasoline. The law requires the gasoline 
tank to be outside and at a certain distance from the house, 
although the mixing chamber where more air is added may 
be nearer. The gas makes an excellent fuel and does not 
contain carbon monoxide, the compound in coal gas which 
is most poisonous. 

There are two kinds of alcohol which are common. One, 
wood alcohol, ought not to be used, because its fumes are 
poisonous. It is much cheaper than the other variety 



COMBUSTION AND FUELS . 103 

called grain, or ordinary alcohol, because that is so highly 
taxed. In recent years a way out of this difficulty has 
been found in the use of denatured alcohol. This is merely 
grain alcohol to which some substance has been added that 
makes it impossible as a beverage and thus it escapes hav- 
ing to pay the heavy tax otherwise imposed. The sub- 
stance added in no way impairs its use as a fuel. 

The use of electricity for cooking has certain advantages 
which are furnished by none of the fuels. In its use there 
are none of the products of combustion to get rid of, there 
is no flame to set fire to the unwary, no matches to be 
looked after, and its control is simple. It is, however, gen- 
erally too expensive for common use. Electricity is meas- 
ured by the kilowatt hour, the cost varying from about ten 
to fifteen cents. The dials on an electric meter are not 
unlike those on a gas meter and can be read easily. 

References 

White. "Fuels of the Household." 

U. S. Dept. of Commerce. Bureau of Standards Circular No. 55, 
sections on Coal, Wood, and Heating Value of Fuels. 

Questions 

1. Name the different substances which may be used as fuels and 
arrange them in the order of their kindhng temperatures. 

2. Name the different kinds of coal used in the house, and, briefly, 
characterize each. 

3. Determine the comparative costs of the different fuels used in 
your locality. Which is most commonly used and why ? 

4. In an ordinary wood or coal stove, what becomes of the products 
of combustion ? Wliere do they go in a gas range ? Account for the 
difference in arrangement. 

5. How is illuminating gas manufactured ? 

6. What source of heat, sometimes used for cooking, is not the 
direct result of combustion ? 



104 . FOOD STUDY 

XIX 
DRAFTS AND THE COAL RANGE 

Baked and Stuffed Potatoes 

A. Prepare Stuffed Potatoes. 

Wash a potato, scrubbing it well with a vegetable 
brush. Bake in a hot oven until soft. Cut a piece off 
the top and remove the contents with a fork, taking care 
not to break the skin. Mash the contents with a little 
butter, salt and pepper, and moisten with hot milk. Re- 
place in the skin and reheat. 

B. Class Experiments. Drafts. 

1. What is the effect of a draft in a stove? Try 
the following experiments to find out : 

a. Put a lamp chimney over a lighted candle, 
but hold it so high that it will not touch 
whatever the candle is standing on. Take 
small pieces of some light material (threads 
of cotton wool will do) and hold them first 
above the chimney, then underneath it. Is 
the draft passing through the chimney 
and in what direction, up or down? 

b. Place a lighted candle in a saucer of water, 
and put the lamp chimney over it so that 
it, too, rests in the water. Why does the 
candle go out ? 

c. Fit a piece of pasteboard lengthwise into 
the lamp chimney. Relight the candle 
and replace the chimney, but set it so that 
the candle flame is on one side of the paste- 
board partition. Why does the candle 
behave differently ? Test the draft. 



COAL STOVES 105 

d. Take an empty pasteboard shoe box. Cut 

two holes in the cover, one at each end. 

Each hole is to be a little smaller than the 

bottom of a lamp chimney. With a drop 

of melted wax, stick a lighted candle to 

the bottom of the box so that the flame will 

be under one of the holes when the cover 

is put on. Cover, and put a lamp chimney 

over each hole. Test the draft by holding 

threads of the light material over each 

chimney. 

2. Examine a wood or coal stove, or range. Is there 

a place for the air to come in as well as a place 

for the products of combustion to pass out? 

Can the size of these openings be regulated ? 

Coal Stoves 

Since air or oxygen is necessary for combustion, there 
must be a constant supply of air, as in a draft, for a fire 
to continue burning. The fire-box, then, in a stove could 
not be air-tight. The air coming in the door below the 
fire ordinarily passes out directly through the stove-pipe. 
The check draft in the stove-pipe may, at will, be left wide 
open, or turned so that it nearly closes the pipe. Besides 
these two means of controlling the supply of air, there is a 
third way. The upper door into the fire-box or a lid on 
top of the stove may be left open. This allows the cold 
air to blow across the top of the fire and cool it so that it 
will burn much more slowly. 

A fire merely built beside an oven would heat it un- 
equally, so arrangements are made to allow the hot gases 
from the fire to pass entirely around the oven when it is 
desired to heat it. This is accomplished by shifting the 



106 



FOOD STUDY 



oven damper. This closes the direct opening into the 
stovepipe and so forces the gases to pass around the oven 
before escaping. 





\Ke CN6CK K-NDue fecTy^yv ^::;J^!^v^- ^-.^ \ 



'T> \$iu 




Coal Stove 

The arrows show circulation of air through A, directly to smoke- 
pipe, and through B, indirectly around oven. 

Notice that there is a handle which may be fitted on a 
bar from the grate. By turning the handle the grate 
may be rocked back and forth to shake down the ashes. 
The fire-box itself is lined with fire-proof material to pro- 
tect the iron as much as possible from gradually burning 



COAL STOVES 107 

out. The top of the stove cannot be so protected, so care 
must be taken to keep the fire low down in the fire-box. 
This means a saving of coal, too, and generally gives as 
efiicient a fire. 

Anything spilled on a stove should be wiped off im- 
mediately with soft paper or cotton waste. If necessary, 
soap and water or sapolio can be used later, for, when cold, 
the top may be cleaned by rubbing with a few drops of 
kerosene. In order to protect the iron from rusting, it is 
necessary to keep it well covered. Blacking is usually 
used for this purpose. The blacking is rubbed on 
while the stove is cold and polished when it is warm. 
A stove that is to be out of use for some time is still 
better protected by covering it with a thin coating of 
oil or grease. 

It is interesting to consider why heating a portion of the 
air causes a draft. This is because the heated air expands 
so that the amount present in any given space is less than 
it was before. It is therefore lighter. But this light air is 
surrounded by cold air, which is heavier and so is pulled 
down harder by the attraction of gravitation which pulls 
everything toward the earth. The cold air, being pulled 
harder, naturally displaces the warm air and so pushes it 
up. It is often said that hot air rises, but this is not 
strictly true, because it would not rise at all if it were not 
for the colder, heavier air around it. 

In the ventilation of rooms advantage is taken of the 
fact that the circulation of air is caused by differences in 
temperature. Hoods are often installed over stoves to 
carry off the odors of cooking. These work in the manner 
indicated above, the hot air over the stove being pushed 
up into the exit pipe by the colder air around. The hood 
itself acts merely by confining the warm air and preventing 
it from scattering. 



108 FOOD STUDY 



References 

U. S. Dept. of Commerce. Bureau of Standards, Circular No. 55, 
sections on Amount of Heat used in Cooking and Some Other 
Household Operations, Regulation of Stoves, Ranges, and Other 
Heating Appliances, and on Oven Thermometers. 

Questions 

1. Why does a match go out if it is blown or shaken too hard ? 

2. Why does a fire burn more brightly if it is blown with a bellows ? 
Why does it not go out ? 

3. Explain why, in building a coal fire, paper and wood are also 
used. Why is the paper twisted and crumpled and the wood laid 
criss-cross ? 

4. How is an oven heated, and how is the temperature of an oven 
controlled ? 

5. What difficulty occurs if the ash pan is allowed to get too full ? 

6. Why should ashes and soot be frequently removed from the 
flues back of and under the oven ? 

7. Why is a fire lighted at the bottom and not at the top ? 

8. How would you arrange to keep a fire over night? Give the 
reason for each act. 

9. What is the danger in allowing coal gas to escape ? 



XX 

FLAME AND GAS STOVES 

Chocolate Bread Pudding 

A. Prepare Chocolate Bread Pudding. 

Melt one-fourth of a square of chocolate over hot water, 
add half a cup of scalded milk, a quarter of a cup of bread 
crumbs, quarter of an egg beaten, one tablespoon of sugar, 
a pinch of salt, and a few drops of vanilla. Bake in a 
buttered dish set in water until firm. Serve with milk or 
cream. 



GAS STOVES 109 

B. Class Experiments. Care of a Gas Stove. 

1. Take a gas stove apart for cleaning. 

2. Blacken the stove. 

3. Examine a Bunsen burner. Light it, and alter- 
nately open and close the holes at the base. 
Hold a cold saucepan for a moment in the clear 
flame. When it is again cold hold it in the yellow 
flame. What effect on the flame has the admis- 
sion of air to the gas? See whether air is ad- 
mitted to the burners in a gas stove. 

4. When the burners beneath the oven of a gas 
stove are to be lighted, it is always safer to open 
the oven door, or, at least, set it ajar. Try the 
following experiments to see why : 

a. Pour a scant teaspoon of gasoline (Warn- 
ing : No light must be in the room while 
inflammable substances such as this are 
being poured. Why?) into a dry, wide- 
mouthed bottle, stir with a hot glass rod 
for a moment, then hold a lighted stick or 
long splinter in the mouth of the bottle. 

h. Pour the same amount of gasoline into a 
small shallow dish (the top of a small tin 
can will do) and light immediately. Ex- 
plain the difference in action in the two 
experiments. When might there be danger 
of an explosion in a gas oven? What dif- 
ference does opening the door make ? 

Gas Stoves 

A flame is burning gas, but the flame may be colorless or 
yeUow. For illuminating purposes a yellow flame is de- 
sirable, because the glowing particles of carbon in the flame 



no FOOD STUDY 

give off light. But for cooking, a flame as nearly colorless 
as may be, is best. This is not only because such a flame 
is hotter, but because the other flame will deposit soot; 
and unburned soot on the saucepans means wasted fuel 
as well as extra trouble in washing. Air admitted to 
the gas furnishes an amount of oxygen sufficient to burn 
up the soot. When a gas stove is first installed, the 
plumber making the connection regulates, by means of 
a small valve in each, the amount of air necessary 
for each burner. This may need to be changed later 
if conditions change; but usually any change in the 
flame, particularly a sudden one, means that the burner 
has become clogged, perhaps by something spilled over it. 
In this case, if it does not readily burn clear again, the 
burner should be detached and boiled out in a weak 
solution of washing soda. 

One of the greatest difficulties experienced may be in the 
striking back of the flame. By this is meant the catching 
fire of the gas in the mixer ; the gas burns with a roaring 
sound and gives off a disagreeable odor and the flame is 
small and yellow. This can be remedied only by turning 
the gas off completely and, if the burner is hot, giving it 
time to cool before relighting. The striking back may 
occur if an attempt is made to light the gas too soon after 
it is turned on, if the gas is turned too low so that there is 
not sufficient pressure, or if the ffame is blown by a sudden 
draft. A stove in a bad position between windows and 
doors may give much trouble in this way, but, usually, the 
difficulty may be overcome by devising a screen to cut off 
the draft. 

Besides remembering to open the door of the oven before 
lighting, one must also be careful, when the gas is turned 
low in the oven, that the flame has not actually gone 
out, leaving a little gas flowing. A habit should be formed 



GAS STOVES 111 

of always looking to see if the gas is still lighted under these 
circumstances. 

The heat of a gas stove is much more easily regulated 
than is that of a coal stove, and care should be taken not 
to waste gas by lighting it ahead of time, by leaving it 
lighted when it is not in use, or by using more flame than is 
necessary. Water that is just boiling is just as hot as 
water that is boiling rapidly, and we cannot cook any 
faster with one than the other. 

Gas is a convenient fuel to use, because there are no 
coals to carry and no ashes to take care of. The products 
of combustion are supposed to be pushed through the pipe 
at the back of the stove. Probabl}^, however, this carries 
off more from the oven than from the upper burners, and 
a hood over the whole is much more effective, because it 
carries off the odors of cooking as well. 

A stop-cock is frequently put in the pipe connecting the 
stove with the main gas pipe. As most burners leak a very 
little, even with the best of care, this is a good practice, 
making it possible to turn off the gas completely whenever 
the stove is not to be used for some time. In case of a 
serious leak, its use is obvious. 

Gas is metered, or measured, by the cubic foot. It 
generally costs from eighty cents to a dollar and a half for 
a thousand cubic feet of gas. The meter is ordinarily read 
every month and the reading of the month before sub- 
tracted from the present reading, in order to determine 
how much has been used. In some places there is a mini- 
mum charge per month which must be paid even if no gas 
has been used. In still other places there are slot meters 
which allow gas to pass after a certain coin, usually a 
quarter, has been inserted, the gas flowing until the 
amount paid for has been used. These are used mostly 
in tenement houses where bills are hard to collect and 



112 



FOOD STUDY 



the frequent sending of a man to turn the gas on and 
off is expensive. 

Reading a gas meter is a simple matter, and in case of 
disagreement over bills is a useful accomplishment. A 
gas meter shows three dials ; the hand on each dial turning 
in a direction opposite to the one next it, in order to help 
obviate mistakes in reading. 



Each division Each division Each division 
of this dial de- of this dial de- of this dial de- 
notes 10,000 notes 1000 feet. notes 100 feet, 
feet. 

How TO Read a Gas Meter.^ 

Read from left-hand dial to right, always taking the 
figures which the hands haw passed. The dials above, 
for example, register 3, 4, 6, and, adding two ciphers for 
the hundreds, show 34,600 feet registered. To ascertain 
the amount of gas used, deduct the previous register as 
indicated on the above dials by dotted hands, 1, 7, 3, 
from the present register, 3, 4, 6, as follows : 

Register by dials shown above 3.4.6.00 

Registered by previous statement, indicated by the dotted 

hands 1.7.3.00 

Number of feet used between readings 17,300 ft. 

If you wish to know how much gas is being used, you 
need only watch the dial at the right hand, each figure 
of which means 100 feet. 

1 By courtesy of the Newton and Watertown Gas Light Co. 



GAS STOVES 113 

The hand on this dial passes from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 
8, 9, to 0, and a complete revolution shows a consump- 
tion of 1000 feet, which appears on the dial next to it 
on the left as 1. 

The average burner at the top of a range, when turned 
on full force, burns about two cubic feet of gas an hour, 
while the oven burner consumes from thirty to forty cubic 
feet. From these figures the advantage can readily be 
seen of using a small portable oven placed over a top 
burner, instead of the large oven. An oven of this sort, 
costing from one to two dollars, soon pays for itself, espe- 
cially in a small family, although the saving is not the full 
difference between these figures, for the burners in either 
case are not left on full after the oven is once hot. 

The consumer is responsible for leaks which occur in the 
gas pipes on his side of the meter, and it is for his advan- 
tage to have these attended to promptly, not only because 
of the danger, but because the escaping gas passes through 
the meter and is registered against him. Leaks on the 
other side of the meter are, of course, not so registered, 
and, since they represent loss to the gas company, are 
attended to by the company. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Commerce. Bureau of Standards, Circular No. 55, 
sections on Gas and Electricity. 

Questions 

1. Discuss the advantages of a gas over a coal range. 

2. What may be the result of letting milk and the like boil over on 
a gas stove ? 

3. Should the flame in a gas stove appear yellow ? 

4. Why should a gas burner in a stove be turned on fully before 
attempting to Hght it ? Explain. 

5. What would you consider wasteful use of gas in a stove ? 



114 FOOD STUDY 

6. Explain the best methods of extinguishing if the following catch 
fire : 

a. clothing 

b. kerosene or gasoline 

c. alcohol or wood 

7. What is the best treatment for burns or scalds ? 

8. Learn to read an electric meter. 



XXI 

RADIATION AND CONDUCTION OF HEAT 

Scrambled Eggs on Toast 

A. Class Experiments. 
How Heat passes from One Place to Another. 

1. Radiation of heat. 

a. Stand in front of a hot stove or fire and notice 
the heat. Then hold a screen between your face 
and the fire. Do you feel the heat on your face 
as before? Yet the air that surrounds you is 
still warm. Heat that passes in straight lines 
directly from one object to another at a distance 
is called radiant heat. The heat is said to pass 
by radiation. 

b. Determine whether a bright, clean surface or a 
dull, rough one radiates heat more easily. Take 
two cheap tin cups, one that is bright and new 
and polished as highly as possible, the other 
that has been held in a fiame until it is rough and 
dull and sooty. Have both cups at room tem- 
perature and fill each with equal amounts of 
boiling water. Test with thermometers to see 
which cools first. Is it economical of heat to keep 
the sides of a saucepan smooth and clean ? 



RADIATION AND CONDUCTION OF HEAT 115 

2. Conduction of heat. 

a. Hold one end of a long piece of wire, or an iron 
poker, in a flame, while you hold the other end 
in your hand. Feel how the heat is led along 
or conducted from one part of the metal to 
another. 

h. Are all substances equally good conductors of 
heat? Repeat (a) with a glass rod or a long 
splinter of wood, instead of the wire. Does 
the other end grow as hot? Hold a test tube 
two-thirds full of water in a flame, but at an 
angle so that the water at the top is directly 
heated. Can you get the water at the top hot 
while the water at the bottom is still cool ? Is 
w^ater a good conductor of heat ? Is air ? 

c. Test the relative conductivity of two saucepans 
by taking two of different materials (as for 
example, one of aluminum and one of granite). 
Pour into them equal amounts of cold water, 
and place them over two flames which are 
equally hot, or heat first one and then the 
other. Determine w^hich boils in the shorter 
time. 

B. SCRAI^IBLE AN EgG. 

Serve on a slice of toast. Decide how the heat has 
been transmitted to each in the cooking. 

ScRAiiiBLED Egg. 

Beat an egg slightly, add a tablespoon of milk, and sea- 
son with pepper and salt. Pour into a pan in which a 
teaspoon of butter has been melted, and cook, scrap- 
ing the mixture from the pan as it sets, until all is 
creamy. 



116 FOOD STUDY 



FiRELEss Cookers 



There is an old story of a man who was held to be a 
wizard because he could blow both hot and cold ; he blew 
on his hands to warm them and on his soup to cool it. But 
fireless cookers can do just as seemingly contrary things, 
since they can keep hot things hot and cool things cool. 
All that is necessary is that they be constructed in such a 
way that little heat can pass in or out of them. 

The simplest form of fireless cooker is the hay box ; 
literally a box stuffed with hay which, with the air spaces 
between, makes a non-conductor of heat. Usually, the 
hay is kept from scattering by covering it with stout cloth. 
Whatever is to be cooked is placed in water in a saucepan 
or pail, heated to boiling, tightly covered, and placed in the 
center of the hay. The difficulty with this type of cooker 
is that some steam with the odor of the food escapes from 
the cooking vessel and is absorbed by the hay, which gradu- 
ally becomes musty and must be replaced. More efHcient 
cookers are lined with non-absorbing material, such as 
enameled metal, which can be washed if desired. The 
metal, being a fairly good conductor of heat, even when 
enameled, must be made double with an air space between. 
Further insulation can be put between these two layers. 
This type is commonly furnished with soapstones, which 
can be heated as hot as desired and placed inside to increase 
the heat and make even baking possible. 

Of course, none of these cookers is so constructed that 
no heat can escape, and, gradually, the material inside be- 
comes cold. The efficiency of different cookers is measured 
by the heat that is retained after some hours of standing. 
To test, equal amounts of boiling water are put in dif- 
ferent cookers, and the temperature of water is taken after 
a given number of hours. 



FIRELESS COOKERS 117 

There is now on the market a combination of a gas stove 
and a fireless cooker which is convenient. The range can 
always be used as an ordinary gas stove, but over some of 
the top burners are hung cyhnders which may be lowered 
at will to cover the kettle which has been heating over the 
burner. At the same time, the flame is extinguished by the 
automatic turning off of the gas. The oven, too, is excep- 
tionally well insulated and may be used as a fireless cooker 
also. While the first cost of these stoves is more than that 
of the ordinary U^es of ranges, they are undoubtedly 
great savers of gas. 

A thermos bottle uses the same principle as a fireless 
cooker. Since heat cannot pass in any more readily than 
it can pass out, both may be used to keep cold drinks cold 
by protecting them from the heat of the air. Thermos 
bottles are made with a vacuum between the inner and 
outer layers, and are more resistent to the passage of heat 
than the ordinary cookers. 

Ice-boxes and refrigerators, too, are efficient in the meas- 
ure in which they are non-conductors of heat, this depend- 
ing on the kind and number of layers of material used for 
"packing." Some people recommend the wrapping of the 
ice in the ice-box in paper of some heavy material to keep it 
from melting so fast by protecting it from the heat of the 
air inside the box. This must not be done if it checks the 
melting too much, for it is the melting of the ice which 
causes the low temperature in the box, and the lowering 
of the temperature is in proportion to the melting, the heat 
of the air being rendered latent as the ice changes to water. 

References 

Any good school textbook in Physics on heat. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fanners' Bulletin No. 298, "The Fire- 
less Cooker." 



118 FOOD STUDY 

U. S. Dept. of Commerce. Bureau of Standards, Circular No. 55, 
sections on Radiation, Refrigeration, and Ice. 

Questions 

1. Is the iron used for the top of stoves a good or bad conductor of 
heat ? Does this matter in cooking ? 

2. Why can you hold your hand for a few moments in an oven 
whose temperature is above that of boiling water ? 

3. How are steam and hot water radiators usually finished? 
Why? 

4. Which boils more quickly, a new tin kettle or one which is dull 
on the bottom ? 

5. Describe different types of fireless cookers. 

6. Why are the metal bails on cooking vessels often made with 
wooden handles ? 

7. What was the old-fashioned tea cosey and how did it work? 

8. What are the materials commonly used in making ice-boxes ? 

9. Why is the ice compartment at the top instead of the bottom 
of an ice-chest ? 

10. How may the weight of a piece of ice be determined by its 
measurements in inches ? 



XXII 

CONVECTION OF HEAT 

Broiled Bacon 
Potato Salad 

A. How Heat Passes from One Place to Another. 

1. Convection of heat. 

Put cocoa shells or sawdust into water and heat — in 
a glass beaker if you have it. Notice the movement 
of the particles. Does this indicate movement of the 
water also ? 



HOT-WATER SYSTEMS 119 

B, Prepake Potato Salad. 

Use one potato. Serve with a crisp slice of bacon. 
Explain carefully exactly how the heat in cooking passes 
from the fire to the potato : to the bacon. 

Potato Salad. 

Cut a boiled potato into half -inch cubes. Season with 
salt and pepper, mix with a very little chopped onion and 
parsley, add two teaspoons of oil, and one teaspoon of 
vinegar. 

Broiled Bacon. 

Lay in a frying pan a thin slice of bacon with the rind 
cut off. When one side is brown turn the slice. 

Hot-Water Systems 

In some ways the passing of heat by convection is 
harder to understand than the two other methods of trans- 
fer. In conduction, heat is said to be passed on from one 
particle to the next. Water is known to be a poor conduc- 
tor, although nobody knows why this is so. In the experi- 
ment in which water with sawdust in it was heated in a 
beaker, the water would not readily pass the heat from one 
particle to the next. Instead, the water at the bottom 
of the beaker became heated by contact, and heat has 
exactly the same effect on water that it has on air. The 
water which is heated expands and so becomes lighter. 
Then it is pushed up by the colder water above, which is 
pulled down harder by gravity, to become heated in its 
turn. The whole of the water becomes hot, not by the 
passage of heat from one particle to the next, but by the 
movements of the particles themselves, carrying the heat 
with them. Thus a circulation of the water is started, the 
hottest water rising to the top. So a water boiler, when it 



120 FOOD STUDY 

is heating, first becomes warm at the top. This can easily 
be felt by placing a hand on the outside of the boiler. 

Boilers and hot-water pipes lose heat through radiation 
and contact with air, and, to decrease the loss, are some- 
times jacketed with asbestos. Asbestos is a mineral sub- 
stance, finely shredded and pressed into a sheet. It is not 
only a poor conductor of heat, but is fire-proof as well. 
It is fairly expensive. 

The Selection of Kitchen Ware 

In choosing utensils for the kitchen many things must 
be taken into consideration. First of all, the probable 
number of people to be cooked for will govern the size of 
many of the utensils. Moreover, the style of living will 
affect the kinds and number of them. In general, for the 
sake of storage room and convenience of access, the num- 
ber of utensils should be kept as small as possible. Utensils 
which can be used for many purposes should be selected 
rather than those that fit a single need, unless that need is 
frequent. In nearly any kitchen are to be found a number 
of utensils that are good, but are so seldom needed that 
they are never used, because it is too much trouble to find 
and wash them for the occasion. Beside these consider- 
ations, convenience in handling, ease in cleaning, and 
durability must all be taken into account. There are 
saucepans which upset easily ; and saucepans with handles 
with sharp edges or which grow hot too quickly ; saucepans 
and skillets with lips on only one side, and that the wrong 
one, so that if one tries to pour from them and stir at the 
same time, the stirring must be done with the left hand. 
Ease of cleaning demands that the utensils be smooth, 
with rounded sides and no seams or corners, and that they 
should be wide enough to permit easy access for cleaning. 




H 

w 

H 

M 

o 

o 

a 



i 



THE SELECTION OF KITCHEN WARE 121 

Meat grinders differ markedly in this respect, some being 
almost impossible to get clean at all. With larger kettles, 
weight must be taken into consideration. 

Durability depends partly on make and partly on the 
material used. Saucepans are usually of aluminum, 
enamel or granite ware, or tin. The so-called tin utensil is 
steel, or sometimes wrought iron or copper, covered with 
tin. It is the least expensive of the three types and also 
the least durable. Cheap grades are easily attacked by the 
weak acids in fruits and vegetables, and even the better 
grades are not proof against these acids when hot; but 
tin vessels are light and good conductors of heat. Since 
tin is sufficiently soft to scratch easily and to wear off 
it is better suited for baking pans and bread and cake- 
boxes than for saucepans. 

Granite and enamel ware is made by coating an iron 
or steel foundation with a glaze which is not unlike glass 
in its nature. The quality depends upon the character 
of the foundation, upon the ingredients of the glaze, 
and the number of coatings, as well as on the success with 
which every particle of the metal is covered. The dura- 
bility is greatly affected by the care that is exercised in 
using it. Sudden heating or cooling, too vigorous scour- 
ing, and dropping, all tend to make it crack and chip 
off, exposing the metal beneath. 

Aluminum is light, and also an excellent conductor 
of heat. It darkens if any alkaline substances are 
used in cleaning it, and should be scoured inside with 
fine steel wool, not soaked in washing powders. It is 
affected slightly by acids, but the experts tell us 
that the amount dissolved is insufficient to harm us. 
It warps if subjected to too much heat. However, it 
makes a durable saucepan and probably justifies its 
cost. 



122 FOOD STUDY 

References 

Clark. "Care of the House." 

U. S. Dept. of Commerce. Bm-eau of Standards, Circular No. 55, 
section on Water. 

Questions 

1. Examine a coal range and see whether it has a water-back or a 
water-front. What makes the water pass from this container into 
the boiler ? 

2. Make a diagram of the hot-water system in your school or in a 
house, and explain the circulation tlirough the pipes. 

3. Of what material is the boiler made? What other materials 
may be used ? Is it always wise to use the water from the hot-water 
faucet for cooking or drinking? 

4. Has your boiler a faucet connected with the lower part of the 
boiler ? What is its use ? 

5. What is the water rate in your town ? If meters are installed 
in the houses, learn to read one. 



XXIII 

REVIEW LESSON 

Second Breakfast — Omelets, Fried Mush and 

Syrup 

A. Prepare and Serve a Breakfast. 
Calculate the cost per individual. Suggested menu : 

Fruit, fresh, or stewed dried fruit 
Omelet 
Fried mush with syrup 
Tea, coffee, or cocoa 

1. Omelets. 

a. French omelet. 

Use the same proportions as in scrambled eggs. 
Have the bottom and sides of a frying pan well- 



I 



I 



TABLE MANNERS 123 

buttered. Do not stir, but as the mixture sets, 
draw in the edges with a knife and tip the pan 
so that the Hquid portion runs into the bottom 
of the pan. When brown on the bottom, fold 
and turn upside down on a hot platter. 
h. Fluffy omelet. 

Beat the yolk and seasoning with the milk and 
fold in the ^g^ white, stiffly beaten. When it is 
brown on the bottom, place in an oven or under 
a gas broiler to dry out the top before folding. 
Since it requires some skill to make omelets and since 
large ones are more difficult to handle than smaller 
ones, it might be well here, for practice, to have one- 
egg omelets made for each person to be served. 

2. Fried Mush. 

Pack mush made of hominy or other breakfast cereal 
into a wet pan, until cold. Cut into slices; if moist 
dip into flour, and brown on both sides in a little fat 
in a frying pan. 

3. Syrup. 

Boil half a cup of brown sugar, three tablespoons of 
water, and half a teaspoon of butter. When moder- 
ately thick, cool and flavor with a few drops of vanilla. 

Table Manners 

It is commonly said, and surely with much truth, that 
it is easy to judge of a person's training by his ability to 
write a correct letter and his manners at table. While such 
manners are partly convention, in most cases there is a 
reason underlying the convention. For example, if chairs 
are close together and two people start to sit down from 



124 FOOD STUDY 

the space between adjacent chairs, confusion results. 
Therefore, convention says, sit down and get up from the 
left-hand side of the chair. If the chairs are placed at the 
table so that the front edge of the chair is in line with the 
hanging edge of the table cloth, there will be little if any 
adjustment and much noise will be avoided. Unless there 
are place cards with the names of guests the hostess indi- 
cates where each is to be seated. The guest of honor, if a 
man, is placed to the right of the hostess ; if a woman, to 
the right of the host. Host and hostess are seated at op- 
posite ends of the table. If there is a waitress, the hostess 
enters the dining room last and sits at the end nearest the 
entrance door, but if there is no waitress she places her- 
self at the opposite end in order to facilitate serving. As 
far as possible men and women are arranged alternately, 
at a formal dinner coming out in couples. A hostess 
shows her social skill in placing congenial people together. 
All stand until the hostess is ready to sit down. 

Silver, as explained in the directions for table setting, 
should be so placed that there is no difficulty in telling 
which article should be used at any time, but convention 
says the hostess should begin to eat first and anybody in 
doubt has only to follow her lead. A child often grasps 
the handle of his spoon with the back of his hand up. 
When he raises it to his mouth, this throws his arm up 
with his elbow out where it is almost certain to interfere 
with his neighbor. Instead, he should be instructed to 
hold it as he would a pen ; then it will be raised with a 
wrist movement and with his elbow down. The soup 
spoon is dipped into the soup away from the person, so 
that the edge which is covered by the soup will be the higher 
edge as the soup is eaten and there will be less tendency to 
drip. Soup is eaten from the side instead of from the 
point of the spoon, because the spoon is too large to go 



TABLE MANNERS 125 

into the mouth and one is less likely to put it in too far 
from the side. Bread and crackers are not broken into 
soup, because this is apt to scatter crumbs. If croutons 
or oyster crackers are served, these are already prepared 
and may be dropped into the soup without difficulty. 

The hands are placed as far up on the handles of knives 
and forks as possible, so the fingers will not come in contact 
with the soiled parts. The fork may be used either in the 
right hand, as the spoon is, with the tines up, or it may be 
used in the left with the tines down. It is not good form 
in cutting meat to hold the fork in an upright position, 
grasping it around the middle of the handle by the fingers. 
Perhaps the reason for this is that it is not nearly so secure 
a hold as by the other method. The knife is never put 
into the mouth, because of the suggestion of cutting the 
lips or tongue. Since it is not used in the mouth, the knife 
should be used instead of the fork for taking butter from 
one's own butter plate. 

Only such food is eaten with the fingers as will not soil 
them. When in doubt, do not use them. It is not eti- 
quette to cut up all the meat before beginning to eat, as 
we do for children. There should be time between bites 
for the necessary preparation of the next mouthful. A 
whole slice of bread should not be spread at a time, 
partly for the same reason but mainly because of the 
difficulty. Spreading it on the left hand gives too much 
contact to be dainty. 

Plates should not be shifted as one finishes with them, — 
that is the duty of the waitress ; to do so looks as if the 
person concerned were in too great a hurry. Nor should 
they be piled together. In passing a plate for a second 
serving the knife and fork should be left on the plate 
because there is no other place to put them. They should 
be placed neatly together so that there shall be room on 



126 FOOD STUDY 

the plate to place the food and in such a position that 
there shall be as little danger as possible of their falling off. 
When the main course at dinner is finished, the knife and 
fork should again be arranged so that there is no danger 
of disturbing them in lifting the plate. At no time during 
a meal should the knife and fork be laid with the handles 
on the cloth and the other ends on the plate. This may 
cause liquids to run up toward the handles, beside implying 
that the plate is too full. 

Salad and pie are eaten with a fork. If cut with a knife 
it implies that the salad is not crisp or the pie is not tender. 
There is a fashion, not always followed, of eating ice cream 
Avith a fork instead of a spoon. Perhaps this is to show 
that the cream is frozen hard enough not to drip. A spoon 
should not be left in a cup, because that makes it easy to 
tip the cup over. 

The napkin should be placed on the lap with one fold 
left in it and should not be crumpled up. Dainty people 
sometimes contend that only a corner of the inside of the 
fold should be used to wipe the mouth so that the soiled 
part shall be kept inside. But perhaps one should not 
have such a soiled mouth as to make this necessary. Care 
must be taken to wipe the lips before drinking if there is 
danger of making a greasy mark on the glass, and after 
drinking if the lips are at all wet. This is especially 
necessary after drinking milk, but, with care, there is no 
need to dip much of the upper lip in the milk. 

Noiselessness in eating means special care in eating soup 
not to suck in the breath. This is a common fault, and 
there are many jokes about the man who will make his 
fortune by inventing a noiseless soup spoon. For the 
same reason, the lips must be kept closed in chewing and 
only small mouthfuls should be taken. One should eat 
slowly, so as not to appear too hungry, and with sufficient 



TABLE MANNERS 127 

deliberation to appear to be enjoying and appreciating 
what is served. 

When asked to express a preference in regard to food, 
do so promptly even if you have no strong feeling. In 
offering second servings, it is better to say *' May I give you 
some meat " instead of " some more meat." " Yes, please " 
or " Yes, thank you" are correct forms of accepting ; " No 
more, thank you" of refusing. ^'No, thank you, I would 
not care for any" is awkward. 

If at table articles are passed around by the people 
seated, then thoughtfulness in seeing that others are 
served with what they wish is necessary. Serving one's 
self without passing the dish shows selfishness. If it is 
necessary to ask to have something passed to you, do not 
address your request to the table in general, but to the one 
who is nearest the dish. Then the others are not unnec- 
essarily troubled to discover who can pass it. At most 
formal dinners, however, guests are relieved of all passing 
by a waitress or butler, and then to pass a dish implies a 
reflection on the service. 

During the meal one should sit erect, alertly attending 
to what is going on. Lolling or leaning back in the chair 
implies one is fatigued or bored. Elbows off the table is 
a good rule. Most of our movements are habits and the 
only way to acquire table manners is by constant practice. 
We cannot be careless every day and then expect to go 
through a formal occasion without a slip. We shall find our- 
selves automatically doing the thing we intended to avoid. 

Remarks on the food are usually considered in bad 
taste. It should be taken for granted that it will be deli- 
cious, and appreciation can be shown in other ways than in 
words. Unpleasant and too intimate topics of conversa- 
tion should be avoided. At a small table the conversation 
is usually general, at a larger party where a general con- 



128 FOOD STUDY 

versation can hardly be heard, conversation alternately 
with those immediately around is the rule. 

The handkerchief should not be in evidence at table 
and, if possible, should not be used. Picking the teeth 
or putting the fingers in the mouth, touching the hair, 
or even the face, should all be avoided. 

The hostess knows when the meal is concluded, and so 
she is the one to give the signal for leaving the table. At 
some dinners the ladies go first, leaving the men to smoke. 
Everyone rises, however, while the ladies pass out. If one 
is not to be present at the next meal at the same place, it is 
not necessary to fold the napkin. It should be placed on 
the table as compactly as possible and not spread out, so 
that it is in danger of coming into contact with soiled 
dishes. If the napkin is folded, this should not be done 
on the table. 

A dinner invitation necessitates a call afterward as an 
acknowledgment of the courtesy. 

Questions 

1. What points must be taken into consideration in determining 
the character of the breakfast to be served to a given family ? 

2. List as many points as possible that seem to you necessary to 
make breakfast a comfortable meal. 

XXIV 

MEDIUM WHITE SAUCE 

Ckeamed Chipped Beef 
A. Class Experiments. Starch. 

1. Boil a pinch of starch with about a tablespoon 
of water ; cool and add a drop of iodine. Recall 
the test on potato. Repeat, using flour instead 
of starch. 



WHITE SAUCE 129 

2. Methods of mixing starch and hot liquids. 

a. Stir a teaspoon of cornstarch or flour into 
half a cup of boiling water and note results. 
Break a lump and examine the inside. 

h. Pour half a cup of boiling water on a tea- 
spoon of starch or flour. Does it still lump ? 

c. Mix a teaspoon of flour or starch with a 
teaspoon of sugar, then pour on half a cup 
of boiling water. Result ? 

d. Mix a teaspoon of starch or flour with a 
little cold water, making a smooth paste, 
and pour this into half a cup of boiling 
water, stirring. Result? 

e. Melt a teaspoon of fat, add a teaspoon of 
flour or starch, stir thoroughly, and then 
pour in gradually half a cup of boiling 
water, stirring as you pour. 

In what ways could you successfully mix flour, 
butter, and hot milk, to make a white sauce ? 

B. White Sauce. 

To find out how much flour is used to thicken a cup 
of milk to the consistency of a white sauce. 

Melt a tablespoon of butter in a saucepan on a 
fire, add a tablespoon of flour, and then pour in 
hot milk, stirring and adding it gradually until 
you obtain the consistency you think proper for 
a white sauce. Be sure to keep track of the 
amount of milk used. Calculate how much 
flour w^ould be needed for a cup of liquid. 
Ordinarily a fourth teaspoon of salt to a cup of 
liquid would be added. Why is it unnecessary, 
considering the use to be made of the white 
sauce in iC) ? 



130 FOOD STUDY 

C. Prepare Chipped Beef on Toast. 

Shred the beef into pieces, cover with hot water 
and let stand a minute to remove some of the 
salt. Then drain, and reheat the beef in the 
sauce made in (J5). Add salt, if needed. 

Wheat 

In this country wheat is of greater importance as a food 
for man than is corn or any other of the cereals. Rice is so 
largely used in eastern countries, China, Japan, and India, 
that possibly more rice is used as food, taking the world at 
large. In England, Hutchison estimates, the people con- 
sume wheat at the rate of six bushels for each inhabitant ; 
in America, Sherman concludes that the amount used is 
even greater, as high as six and a half bushels per person. 
As America has not only the proper conditions of climate, 
but the necessary acres on which to grow it, wheat is 
an important agricultural product, the United States 
exporting it in large quantities. More corn is actually 
grown, it is true, but more of this is used on the farms for 
cattle food, so that the wheat crop is first in commercial 
importance. 

Wheat is classified as *'hard" or "soft," according as its 
gluten content is high or low; as "winter" or "spring," 
according to the season in which it is planted. In locali- 
ties where the winter is not too severe, wheat is planted in 
the fall and allowed to winter in the ground, maturing early 
in the summer. Spring wheat is not planted until the 
winter is over and, consequently, matures later in the sea- 
son. The character of the wheat differs with the variety 
and the locality where it is grown, but, in general, winter 
wheat contains more starch and is "softer" than spring 
wheat, which is usually preferred for making bread flour. 



WHEAT 131 

The percentage of gluten is not, however, the only thing 
to be considered, for the quality of the gluten is of even 
greater importance than the amount. 

Durum wheat, a very "hard" variety, is used for the 
manufacture of macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli. These 
are manufactured by forcing the flour, mixed with water 
to form a stiff dough, through holes in the cover of a steam- 
heated cylinder. In Italy, the shaped paste is hung on 
rods to dry, sometimes in the air, sometimes in ovens. It 
is claimed that in America greater care is taken during the 
drying process to protect the paste from dust. Good 
macaroni should be cream white, should break without 
splitting, should not lose its shape and should swell to 
about three times its bulk when cooked. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Exp. Sta. Bulletin No. 200. "Courses 
in Cereal Foods." 

Questions 

1. Why do we cook starch? 

2. What are the proportions for making an ordinary white sauce ? 
These are used so often they should be learned thoroughly. 

3. Review the different ways in which white sauce can be suc- 
cessfully put together. Give instances in which you think it would 
be advantageous to use each of these methods. 

4. If you are making a small amount of white sauce by the 
melted-butter method, cold liquid may be added. If you are mak- 
ing large amounts it is wiser to use hot liquid. Account for the 
difference. 



132 FOOD STUDY 

XXV 

THICK WHITE SAUCE 

Salmon Croquettes 
Cheese Souffle 

A. Prepare Salmon Croquettes. 

Make a third of a cup of thick white sauce, using the 
proportions of four tablespoons of flour, and two table- 
spoons of butter, to one cup of milk. Add one-fourth of a 
teaspoon of salt. 

Use half of the white sauce to prepare salmon croquettes, 
using about twice as much fish (flaked) as sauce. Sea- 
son with lemon, salt, and paprika. Spread on a plate to 
cool, shape, then dip in crumbs, in egg (beat an egg 
slightly with a fork, add two tablespoons of water), and 
in crumbs again. Fry in deep fat. When fat wdll turn a 
piece of bread a golden brown in forty seconds, it is the 
right temperature for frying food that is already cooked. 
Find out, with a thermometer, what temperature this is. 
(Be careful to wipe off the thermometer, but do not wash 
until cool for fear of breaking.) Drain the croquettes 
on absorbent paper, and do not pile on top of one another 
while hot. 

B. Prepare Cheese Souffle. 

Use. the rest of the white sauce to prepare cheese 
souffle. Add to the white sauce one and a half tablespoons 
of grated cheese, a little paprika, and half the beaten yolk 
of an egg. Then fold in half the stiffly-beaten white of an 
egg. Bake in a buttered earthenware dish placed in a 
pan of water. Serve at once. 




Fryixg Croquettes 




Kidney Rib French 

La3ib Chops 



BREAD FLOUR AND ITS MANUFACTURE 133 



Bread Flour and Its Manufacture 

The wheat kernel consists of a number of different parts. 
The outside layer is known as bran and is removed in the 
process of making white flour. This bran consists of cellu- 
lose and mineral matter, with a higher percentage of nitro- 
gen than is found in wheat 
flour. But this nitrogen 
is found largely in the 
aleurone or inner layer of 
the bran, and is enclosed 
in cells which are so thick- 
walled that probably not 
much of it could be di- 
gested if eaten. The 
germ is rejected, because 
it contains so large a per- 
centage of fat that flour 
containing it would be 
less likely to keep. The 
portion of the kernel, after 
the bran is removed and 
without the germ, is known 
as the endosperm. This 
endosperm is the portion 
which is ground to make 
white flour. It consti- 
tutes about eighty per cent of the whole kernel and 
contains a large percentage of starch, — about seventy- 
five per cent — besides nearly twelve per cent protein, 
about one per cent fat, and half of one per cent of mineral 
matter. It is curious to note that even so dry a sub- 
stance has about thirteen per cent of water present. 

The length of the process of making flour varies in the 




Grain of Wheat 

Diagram of section : a, bran ; 
h, aleurone layer ; c, germ or em- 
bryo ; d, endosperm. 



134 FOOD STUDY 

different mills. In the old process, the wheat kernels were 
ground between millstones, the crushed product was sifted 
first through coarser material to remove the bran, next 
through bolting cloth to remove the material of interme- 
diate size which was called middlings. What went through 
the bolting cloth was flour. Now, after the wheat has been 
screened to remove foreign substances and cleaned, it is 
put between corrugated rollers which flatten and partially 
crush the kernel, producing a small amount of flour. This 
is known as the first break. After the flour has been 
sifted out, the rest is again crushed between rollers which 
are this time a little closer together. These processes 
are repeated, some mills using so many rollers and sieves 
that there may be forty different "streams" of flour from 
the grinding. These "streams" are finally mixed to- 
gether to form the various grades of flour desired. In the 
higher grades of flour, the gluten is more elastic and 
better for bread-making. 

References 
Booklets sent out free by well-known flour mills. 

Questions 

1. Consult various cook books, and then make a table showing the 
kinds of fat, starch, liquid, and seasoning, which may be used in 
preparing sauces for vegetables, fish, meat, and puddings that have 
a white sauce basis. 

2. How many pounds are there in a barrel of flour ? In a bag ? 

3. What does the same grade of flom- cost by the pound, the bag, 
and the barrel ? 

4. What are the trade names of some of the best-known, high 
grade flours ? 



CORNSTARCH MOLD 135 

XXVI 

STARCH 

Cornstarch Mold 
Macaroni and Tomato Sauce 

A. Class Experiments. 

Mix half a tablespoon of cornstarch with quarter of a 
cup of cold water, and cook, stirring and adding measured 
amounts of water until you obtain the same consistency 
as a medium white sauce. What is the comparative 
thickening power of flour and cornstarch ? 

B. Cornstarch Mold. 

Make a cornstarch mold, using a cup of milk, one 
tablespoon of sugar, a saltspoon of salt, and as much corn- 
starch as would give the consistency of the thick white 
sauce used in the last lesson. How will you combine the 
ingredients? Cook five minutes over the fire, stirring 
constantly ; then cook covered, over water, until the "raw" 
taste has disappeared. This will take at least fifteen 
minutes.^ Remove from the fire, add a few drops of vanilla 
and pour into a wet mold, and let stand until cold. Serve 
with chocolate sauce. 

Chocolate Sauce. 

Melt a quarter of a square of chocolate with a quarter of 
a teaspoon of butter. Add three tablespoons of water, a 
half cup of sugar and a few grains of salt. Boil until 
moderately thick; cool, and flavor with a few drops of 
vanilla. 

^ In cooking so small a quantity so long a time, it may be 
necessary to allow for the increased loss by evaporation. 



136 FOOD STUDY 

C, Prepare Macaroni and Tomato Sauce. 

Boil until tender a quarter of a cup of macaroni broken 
into inch pieces in a pint of boiling water with half a 
teaspoon of salt. Drain and pour some cold water over it 
to prevent the pieces from sticking together. Reheat 
in an equal amount of tomato sauce. Make this as you 
would white sauce, but use the juice from canned tomato 
for the liquid. Since macaroni is starchy, use a propor- 
tion of flour that will make a sauce between thin and 
medium. 

Cornstarch 

The manufacture of cornstarch is interesting because so 
many other products are made at the same time. The 
outline of the process is as follows. 

After the corn is cleaned, it is soaked or steeped in warm 
water for a couple of days. In order to prevent its spoiling, 
a little sulphurous acid is added. When the corn is sufii- 
ciently swollen, it is ground coarsely so as to break up the 
kernel without breaking the germ. The germ is so rich in 
both protein and fat that it is most easily taken care of by 
itself. All that is necessary to separate it after the grinding 
is to run the ground mass into separators, when at a certain 
density of the liquid the germ, light on account of its oil 
content, floats on top of the water, while the ground hulls 
and starch settle and are drawn off from the bottom. The 
next problem is the separation of the starch from the hulls. 
It is necessary to grind the mass up much more finely than 
before, then the semi-liquid is passed over sieves of bolting 
cloth with a 200 mesh, which is shaken mechanically so 
that the particles of the hull are sifted out, the starch itself 
passing through. The hulls are separated, re-ground, and 
re-sifted, and sprayed with water during the process, in 
order to get out all the starch possible. The starch and 



CORNSTARCH 137 

water that goes through the sieve, however, is still mixed 
with protein. This liquor, at just the right density, is 
passed over long tanks with slightly inclined bottoms. 
As it flows, the starch settles and rolls along the inclined 
surface, thus washing itself. 

The water containing the protein is usually mixed with 
the hulls and the dried product is used for feed for cattle. 
The separated germ is pressed to extract some of the oil. 
Corn oil is used as food only to a small extent, but it is 
used for making soap and in other industrial processes. 
The germ with the oil partly expressed is mostly exported 
to Europe as oil-cake, and is used for feeding stock. 

After all the processes the starch has gone through, it 
is still crude. It may, at this stage, be used to make corn 
syrup and glucose, but otherwise it must be still further 
refined. Too much protein remains in it, so that it is 
further washed, sometimes with water alone, sometimes 
with dilute alkali. Often the plant which separates all 
the direct products of corn also manufactures dextrine as 
well as corn syrup and glucose. 

Cornstarch is less difficult to mix with liquids than is 
flour, because it does not contain the gluten which flour 
does. When hot water is poured over starch, it gelatinizes 
the starch with which it comes into contact. The starchy 
grains form a mass which is impervious to water and so 
prevents the water reaching all of the starch grains. This 
can be prevented by mixing some other substance with 
the starch before pouring on the water, because the other 
substance separates the grains and gives them room to swell 
without sticking together. As raw starch is both less 
digestible and much less palatable than cooked, prevention 
of lumping is important. 

In spite of all the purifications cornstarch has undergone 
in its manufacture it has a characteristic flavor which 



138 FOOD STUDY 

everyone readily recognizes and which must be due to 
some other substance mixed with the starch. Only after 
long cooking does this flavor disappear. 

Questions 

1. Give two reasons why, in making the pudding, the cornstarch 
is covered during the long cooking ? 

2. Why does cornstarch require so much longer cooking than 
flour? 

3. If you were to make a large amount of cornstarch pudding 
why would you not mix the cornstarch with all of the cold milk? 
How would you proceed ? 

4. What ways can you think of to vary cornstarch pudding, 
besides serving it with different sauces ? Consult cook books. 

5. How do macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli differ ? What do 
the names mean ? 

6. Study the cost of various macaronis to be found in your 
markets. Do cost and quality correspond ? 

7. Consult cook books and make a list of ways in which maca- 
roni may be served. 

8. How does a sauce thickened with cornstarch differ in appear- 
ance from one thickened with flour ? 

9. Since sauces are not cooked a long time, would you choose corn- 
starch to thicken a sauce which was not highly flavored ? Why ? 

10. How does laundry starch differ from the cornstarch used for 
cooking ? 

11. Why is laundry starch in Europe manufactured from potatoes 
and not from corn ? 



CREAMED VEGETABLES 139 

XXVII 

CREAMED VEGETABLES 

Peas and Carrots 

A. Class Experiments. 

Tpie Effect of Moist Heat on Starch. 

1 . Mix half a teaspoon of starch with a third of a cup of 
water. Let it stand. Does the starch settle out? 
Pour the mixture through a filter paper placed in a 
funnel. Test the water which passes through for 
starch. Is starch soluble; that is, does it dissolve 
in cold water? 

2. Examine a few grains of corn starch under a micro- 
scope. Of wheat starch (flour). Compare them 
with the microscopic appearance of potato starch. 

3. Mix a teaspoon of starch with two-thirds of a cup of 
water. Heat to 180° F., using a thermometer to 
determine the temperature. Pour off a part, and 
heat the remainder to boiling. Taste each. Cool, 
and examine under a microscope the starch in both 
stages of cooking. 

B. Creamed Peas and Carrots in Toast Boxes. 

Wash and scrape a carrot, and boil it in salted water 
until tender. If the carrot is very large, it may be neces- 
sary to cut it up in order to have it cook in a short time, 
but this is not the ordinary practice. While the carrot is 
cooking, make a white sauce, using the same proportions 
as in the last lesson, but mix as follows : cream the butter 
and flour together, add the hot milk slowly, stirring hard. 
Add equal amounts of diced carrots and canned peas. 
Serve in toast boxes. These are made by cutting a cube 



140 FOOD STUDY 

of the desired size, say three inches, out of the crumb of a 
stale loaf of bread, hollowing it from one side, and brown- 
ing it in the oven. 

Canned Vegetables 

Vegetables are much more difficult to can at home than 
fruits. This is possibly because of the greater amount of 
acid present in fruits. Tomatoes, in common parlance 
called a vegetable although they are really the fruit of the 
tomato plant, are, like the fruits, easy to can. The diffi- 
culty in canning vegetables is caused by the spore-forming 
bacteria. Intermittent sterilization may be resorted to, 
and the cans of vegetables boiled for an hour on three 
successive days ; or very long boiling may be tried, perhaps 
for five hours, on a single day. This really overcooks the 
vegetable, so that a better product is obtained by heating 
for a shorter time under pressure, when the temperature 
is higher than that of boiling water. 

In the commercial process the latter method is used. 
The cans are filled with the vegetables, the caps are 
soldered on, leaving only a small hole for the escape of 
steam. The can is then "processed", as it is called, either 
by cooking it in steam under pressure or in a solution of a 
substance like calcium chloride or rock salt, which boils 
at a higher temperature than water alone. This higher 
outside temperature makes the contents of the can itself 
boil. The length of time this process is carried on depends 
upon the particular vegetable and how long it has stood 
after picking, before being canned. When perfect steriliza- 
tion is probably effected, the tiny hole in the can is soldered. 
Some modern factories leave more than one hole to be 
soldered, and the old rule that more than one hole means 
that the cans have started to spoil and been re-sterilized 
no longer holds. After sealing, the cans are inverted to 



CANNED VEGETABLES 141 

detect possible leaks. The cans are usually labeled upside 
down, and the contents of cans of some sorts of material 
are more easily removed if opened at the bottom. 

All canned goods are better for being opened half an 
hour or so before using and allowed to air. If the can is 
tin, the contents should be poured out as soon as it is 
opened, because there is a chance of any acid in them 
acting on the tin in the presence of air. Such canned 
goods as peas and beans have a better flavor if drained 
from the liquid in which they are packed, and washed by 
having fresh water poured over them. To prevent waste 
of material, the liquid may be added to soup. 

References 

Olsen. "Pure Foods." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Fanners' Bulletin No. 359. ** Canning Vegetables in the Home." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 73. Exp. Sta. Work, Vol. IV, p. 3. ''Swells 
in Canned Vegetables." 

Questions 

1. What should be the price of cans of different kinds of vege- 
tables ? 

2. If one has storeroom for them, is there advantage in buying 
canned goods in quantity ? 

3. How much do the ordinary-sized cans of different vegetables 
contain ? 

4. What differences are there between the different grades of the 
same canned vegetables ? 

5. What is the best use to make of the cheaper grades ? 

6. Suggest vegetables which would be good creamed. 



142 FOOD STUDY 

XXVIII 

THIN WHITE SAUCE 

Cre.\:m Soups: 
Celery and Potato 

A. Make Croutoxs ix the Oven. 

B. The Prixciple of Cream Soups. 

Wash and scrape some celery, and cut it into half-inch 
pieces. (Often only outside stalks and leaves are used, 
while the white, crisp pieces are kept to serve uncooked.) 
Cook about half a cup of celery, to which a small piece 
of onion may be added if desired, in boiling salted water. 
WTien soft, rub through a sieve. ]\Iake a white sauce 
using one tablespoon each of butter and flour, and exactly 
half a cup of celery water. Thin with milk, measuring 
the amount used, until you obtain the right consistency 
for a cream soup. Adding the amounts of water and milk 
used, what do you determine is the usual proportion of 
flour to liquid needed to thicken a soup ? 

C. Prepare Potato Soup. 

To two tablespoons of mashed potato, add half a cup 
of thin white sauce. Add milk, measuring the amount, 
to make a soup of the right consistency. Serve with 
croutons. How much milk was used all together ? Why 
is more needed here in proportion to the flour than in 
celery soup? To make the soup richer, part cream may 
be used, or white stock instead of water, or a spoon of 
well-beaten egg white or of whipped cream may be 
placed in the serving dish before the soup is poured 
into it. 



CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES 143 

Cl^ssificatiox of Vegetables 

The term vegetable, as it is commonly used, includes 
many foods which botanically would be classed elsewhere. 
Rice, macaroni, French chestnuts, and even tomatoes 
and cucumbers are all examples of such foods. At least, 
it v%-ill be admitted that if they are not vegetables they 
are used as such. 

Classifications of vegetables are many. One is made 
according to the part of the plant from which they come. 
For example : 

Bulbs : garlic, onions. 

Fruits : cucumber, egg plant, squash, tomato. 

Leaves: Brussels sprouts, cabbage, lettuc-e, spinach. 

Roots : beets, carrots, oyster plant, sweet pnjtato, turnips. 

Seeds : beans, com, lentils, peas, rice. 

Stems : asparagus, celen', chives. 

Tubers : Jerusalem artichokes, white potato. 

Although this is of interest, it is not much help to us from 
the food standpoint. 

Another classification, made according to food value, 
gives us succulent, or watery, as opposed to starchy vege- 
tables. This is sometimes misleading, if one concludes 
from it that watery vegetables have little or no food value. 
Xot only do they contain valuable mineral salts, but, as 
Sherman, in his book on Food Products, justly says, "Even 
those fruits and green vegetables that are eaten for flavor 
with little thought of food value, and which are often 
thought of as luxuries because of their high water content, 
will often be found to furnish energ\' at no greater cost 
than many of the familiar cuts of meat, when account is 
taken of the extent to which the fat of the meat is usually 
rejected or lost in cooking or at the table." This 



144 



FOOD STUDY 



U.S. Deportment of Agricufture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A.C.True: Director 



R"epaped by 

CrLANGWORTHT 
Expert in Charge of Nutrition Invest^ioos 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 

00 Colories 



fVotein 



Fat 



lA'oter 



FutL VALUE: 

c 

230 CALDTJIES 
PCR POUND 




ONION 




.ton: 1.6 
at: 0.5 
ohydrates:l3.5 



^1:0.3 

^Ash:0.6 
Fuel value: 

2£5 CALHWltS 
PCR POUND 



PARSNIP 
POTATO 

FVotein:2.2 




Water: 78.3 



385 calories per pound 




Carbohydrates: 3.' 



85 calories 
per pound 



Composition of Vegetables 



CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES 145 

classification, however, is suggestive, especially in menu- 
making. It is much better to serve a variety of vegetables 
together, rather than too many from one class. Rice, 
potatoes, and macaroni are much better substituted for 
one another than served at the same time. 

An old classification as to season shows, at least, how 
times have changed, for with greater facilities for trans- 
portation from both North and South, together with hot- 
house vegetables, the display in a market no longer follows 
the old list. Celery, for example, was given as a fall and 
winter vegetable, whereas it is now to be found most of the 
year. 

The classification which helps most in cooking is un- 
doubtedly that into mild- and strong-flavored vegetables. 
In the first, every effort should be made to retain as much 
of the flavor as possible. In the latter case, the result 
may be improved if some of the strong taste is removed. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmer's Bulletin No. 256. ''Prepara- 
tion of Vegetables for the Table." 

Questions 

L Make a list of as many of the common vegetables as you can 
that would contain sufficient starch to have a thickening effect in 
making soup. 

2. Make a list of succulent vegetables which you think would 
make good soup. How would a recipe for making cream soup from 
these differ from one for making soup with starchy vegetables ? 

3. How could the materials for making a cream soup be combined 
otherwise than by mixing the flour with the melted butter ? If you 
were making a larger quantity of soup, say a quart, which method 
would seem to you easiest ? 

4. Using a cook book, make a list of seasonings which are desirable 
to use in soups, 



146 POOD STUDY 

XXIX 
SCALLOPED ^TGETABLES 

Cabbage of. Cbnox 

^4. CUs? Erperime::: ALxeeal Ash ES" Vegetaslils, 

F ■ : _ ' - - big as an incli cube 

: _ .:il the residue is quite 

" .: 7 - -last ened by moistemiig with. 

a - L : : : a blast lamp is available, use it. 

X :t : t h: -It oi ash obtained. 

B. CoC'KixG Stboxg-flatoeid Vegetables. 

r i^ ; ■ : rs of cabbage at cmion. 

1. In ver." Kttle water (a) covered 

(b) uncovered 

2. In much wat^" (a) covoed 

(b) uncovered 

Compare the odor given off while cooking, and the flavor 
ol the vegetable at the end. Which is the best method of 
cooking strong-^vored vegetables ? Save the water used, 
as wdQ as the vi^ietaUe. 

C. Prepare Scalloped Cabbage or Qxiox. 

Place the vegetable cooked in iB) in a buttered baking- 
dish, mix with meiiiin ~l::e sauce, and sprinkle with 
buttered crumbs. 

Butt«ed crumbs are easily p- : . ;y melting the 
hotter in a saucepan, stirring in read crumbs and 

seasmung with salt, and pepper if desired. AUow about 
hatf a teaspoon oi butter for a tablespoon of crumbs. 

D. Pez? L?z C--- \M Soup. 

Use : T - :rr in which the vegetables were cooked. 
Make your own recqie. 



VEGETABLES 147 



Vegetables 



In brnTog vegetables it is wisest to buy those which are 
in season, rather than imported or hot-house vegetaUes. 
The laner are seldom equal in flavor or texture and are 
usually much more costly. It b easy to blunt our relish for 
a vegetable by eating poor specimens out of sessoa. Even 
when vegetables are in season, there is much choice to be 
exercised in their selection. Some vegetables, when kept, 
do not retain their s~ec: flavor. This is especially true ol 
green peas and com, in only less measure oi string beans 
and asparagus. Such vegetables must be fresh, and fredi- 
ness is told chiefly by crispness. Asparagus can be judged 
partly by seeing whether the stems have been cut recently. 
In com. not only should the silk be brown, but the car 
filled with well-developed kemels. The komel, wbrai cut, 
should be tender and juicj-. String beans dioald have a 
brittle pod with tender strings, and the beans shoukl be 
small. Some varieties of peas are large ; unle^ of sodi a 
varietA-, young peas are smaQ. Pods should be crisp and 
green and. for the sake of economy, full. Fresh spiuadi, 
celer^-, lettuce, cucumber, radishes, summer sq[aa^, and 
tomatoes are not difficult to sdect. Lettuce and cday 
should be tender as well as fresh and orisp. Hie freshness 
of young carrots and beets can be told by their leaves. 
With older ones, in the winto" market, smaller vegetaMes 
are not only more tender, but. if bou^t by measure, give 
more for the money. 

If wilted vegetables must be used, they should be sc^^ked 
in cool water to freshen them as much as possible. The 
effect is much the same as with wilted flowers. Vegetiibles 
do not. however, keep weU standing in water. The watG" 
becomes full of bacteria, just as does the water iu ^iiidi 
flowers stand, and, if the vegetables aie cut, some of the 



148 



FOOD STUDY 



U.S Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 
AC True: Director 



FVefxired by 

C.FLANGWORTHY 

Ejq)ert in Charge of Nutiition Invostigcltions 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 



nniQ 

Protein 



Fat 



mm ^ 

Carbohydrates Ash 



Water 



.Fuel Value 
TbSq In. Equal* 
1000 Calories 



SHELLED BEAN, FRESH 

Carbohydrates: 29 .1 
-Ash: 2.0 




NAVY BEAN, DRY 

/atenl2.e 
FVotein722.; 



'Carboh^ 




Pud. valuc: 



7^0 



CAU0R1E5 PCR POUND 



1600 



CALORIES PCR POUND 



STRING BEAN, GREEN 



Carbohydrates:?. 



Water: 89.^ 




195 



FuElL VALUE 

D 

EALDRIE5 PER POUND 



CORN, GREEN 

e:oi8l£ portion 



Water: 75 .4 




Carboh\^ate3:19.7 
Ash:0.7 



Fuel D I 500 calories 
value:- H per pound 



■at:1.l 



Composition of Legumes and Corn 



VEGETABLES 149 

soluble constituents are soaked out. Dried vegetables, 
too, must be soaked, but only for a limited time, to restore 
the water which has been lost in drying. 

Although vegetables differ greatly in regard to their 
composition, they are all valuable for their mineral salts. 
But unless care is taken, these valuable constituents, as 
well as much soluble protein and sugar, will be lost in the 
preparation. For this reason steaming is better than 
boiling unless the water in which they are cooked is to be 
used. For the same reason vegetables are better cooked 
whole or cut in as large pieces as possible. Recent experi- 
ments ^ have shown, for example, that while spinach and 
cabbage lose very little when steamed, over thirty per 
cent more of the total solids are lost when the same vege- 
tables are boiled. Baking is an ideal method for vegetables 
that can be so prepared. 

In general, vegetables are put on to boil in hot water. 
The exception should be made with peas and beans, which 
are less tough if started in cold water. As a general rule, 
vegetables are greatly over-cooked, losing much flavor in 
this way. They should be removed from the water as 
soon as they are sufficiently tender. This is especially 
true of mild-flavored vegetables, but it is true, too, of 
cabbage, which becomes slimy and quite different in 
texture and flavor as a result of long cooking. 

Vegetables may be prepared deliciously in a fireless 
cooker. With strong-flavored vegetables, the heat is not 
sufficient to develop the objectionable strong flavor. 

Winter vegetables to be stored should be kept cool, dark, 
dry, and piled up, to keep out as much air as possible. 
Squashes are an exception and should be spread out in a 
warm, dry place. 

^ Journal of Home Economics^ Deo. 1912, ** Losses In Cooking 
Vegetables." 



150 FOOD STUDY 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 256. *'The Preparation of Vegetables for 

the Table." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 73, pp. 23-27 : "Cooking Vegetables." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 342, pp. 29-30 : "Cooking Beans and other 
Vegetables." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Office of Exp. Sta. Bulletin No. 245. "Courses in the Use and 
Preparation of Vegetable Foods." 

Questions 

1. Make a list of strong, and of sweet or mild-flavored vegetables. 

2. Are vegetables which contain little starch cheap or dear food 
compared with the amount of nutrients they contain ? 

3. How is their use justified ? 

4. Suggest uses for the water in which vegetables have been cooked. 

5. Why is it unwise to buy vegetables, fruit, and meat by 
telephone ? 

XXX 

GREEN VEGETABLES 

Spinach 
Lettuce 

A. Class Experiments. 

The Freshening of Green Vegetables. 

1. Soak lettuce in ice water for half an hour. 

2. Soak lettuce in ice water over night. 

3. Wash lettuce and put it in an air-tight can or jar on 
ice in an ice-box ; allow it to remain an hour or longer. 

4. Wash lettuce, wrap in a damp cloth, and place on ice 
in an ice-box ; allow it to remain an hour or longer. 



GREEN VEGETABLES 151 

5. Wash lettuce, wrap it in a damp cloth, and hang in 
the wind. 

6. Pour a little French dressing (see below) over a lettuce 
leaf, and let it stand awhile. * j 

How would you recommend keeping lettuce? How 
freshen it quickly ? When should it be dressed ? 

B, Cooking Greens. 

Pick over and wash very carefully in several waters 
spinach or other greens. 

1. Cook for ten minutes in a saucepan without the addi- 
tion of more water than remains from the washing, 
tossing frequently to prevent burning. Chop. Con- 
tinue simmering until tender. 

2. Cook uncovered in a large amount of salted water 
until tender. 

Compare the flavor and color obtained by the different 
methods of cooking. 

Season part of the spinach with salt, pepper, and butter, 
and serve with slices of hard-cooked eggs. 

Pack the rest into a mold to cool. Serve as salad with 
one of the following dressings. 

French Dressing. 

Use one-third to one-half as much vinegar or lemon juice 
as oil, and a quarter of a teaspoon of salt for each table- 
spoon of oil. Add a little pepper or paprika. Beat with a 
spoon till well blended. 

Sour Cream Dressing. 

Beat half a teaspoon of powdered sugar into a tablespoon 
of thick, sour cream, and season with salt, pepper, and 
lemon juice or vinegar to taste. 



152 FOOD STUDY 

The A^iount of Food Necessary 

The nutrients in food are summed up into five groups 
called food principles or foodstuffs : water, mineral matter, 
proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. 

Water is found in nearly all foods. Its specific uses in 
the body have already been mentioned in the discussion of 
water. 

Mineral matter, too, has been discussed, so that all that 
need be said here is to point out the fact that it is found 
generally in all foods. The kinds, as well as the amounts, 
differ greatly, and it is a difficult matter to try to supply 
definite amounts of all the different kinds. In general, 
however, those foods wliich contain large amounts of 
mineral matter should be eaten in abundant quantity. 
Meat, fats, and sugar, show so little ash that if too much of 
them is eaten the diet mav easilv fail to furnish a sufficient 
supply of mineral substances. The value of fruits and 
vegetables on account of their salts has already been 
emphasized. 

The proteins get their name from a word which means 
" first " or " chief." They received this name because they 
are the only foodstuffs which contain nitrogen and so are 
essential for building and repairing body tissue, for this 
also contains nitrogen. Besides nitrogen, they contain 
oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, as well as other elements, 
such as sulphur and phosphorus, in smaller quantities. 
IMeats, eggs and milk provide us with large amounts of 
animal protein. Protein is also found in our vegetable 
foods, — most of the nuts, some of the grains, and a few 
vegetables containing appreciable amounts. 

The carbohydrate group receives its name because all 
the compounds in this class are composed of carbon, and 
of hydrogen and oxy^gen which are usually in the same pro- 



THE AMOUNT OF FOOD NECESSARY 153 

portion as in water. Starch, cellulose, and sugar, as well 
as pectin and dextrine, are all members of this group. 

The fats contain only the three elements which are found 
in the carbohydrates, but they are present in quite diflPer- 
ent proportions. Oils are merely fats which are liquid 
at ordinary temperatures instead of solid. 

As has already been said, the last three classes of foods 
act as fuels in the body, supphdng it with energy. The 
energy which is thus supplied is the sole source of the 
energy of the body. It is used not only for maintaining 
the temperature, but for all muscular movement as well. 
It is, then, a matter of great moment, not only that the 
body should be supplied with enough protein for building 
material, but that it should also be supplied with enough 
energy. At first thought it might seem as if proteins 
could be used entirely for both these purposes and fats and 
carbohydrates omitted from the diet, but there is every 
reason to believe that the results would be bad, for a 
number of causes, one of which is that this would furnish 
the body with a great excess of nitrogen. 

It is easy to see that enough energy must be furnished, 
but what is "enough" and how is the amount to be deter- 
mined? This can be done by measuring the energy 
needed by the body, and the amount of energy supplied 
by various foodstuffs. 

WTiile energy may be measured in a variety of ways, for 
example, as work, measured in foot-pounds, or as light, 
measured in candle power, the energy value of foods is 
measured as heat in calories. The unit of measurement, 
the calorie, is the amount of heat necessary to raise the 
temperature of a kilogram (about a quart) of water one 
degree Centigrade, or it may be expressed as about the 
amount of heat that would raise the temperature of a 
pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit. 



154 FOOD STUDY 

To determine the energy value of a foodstuff all that is 
necessary is to burn a given amount of it in such a way 
that all the heat given off shall be taken up by water. 
Then, knowing the amount of water and the rise in tem- 
perature, the number of calories given off can be calculated. 
Such an apparatus is called a calorimeter, from the word 
meter, or measure, and calor, a Latin word meaning heat. 
A hollow metal cylinder, containing the material to be 
burned and a supply of oxygen, is immersed in an insulated 
tank containing a measured amount of water. Combus- 
tion is started by sending an electric spark through the 
foodstuff. The heat given off passes through the metal 
cylinder into the water. The rise in temperature is very 
accurately determined by means of thermometers, and 
corrections are made for any unavoidable escape of 
heat. 

All the carbohydrates and fats which are digested and 
burned in the body give off, so far as is known, the same 
amounts of energy under these circumstances that they do 
in the calorimeter. Proteins, however, are not completely 
oxidized in the body, and so furnish it with a somewhat 
smaller amount of heat than the calorimeter would indicate. 
Allowing for losses in digestion, it has been determined 
that every ounce of either protein or carbohydrate eaten 
supplies the body with 113 calories of heat; fats have 
greater fuel value and give 255 calories for every ounce. 

The total amount of energy which must be supplied per 
person per day is, obviously, affected by the size of the 
person whose temperature must be maintained, as well as 
by the amount of energy used up in work. Atwater, 
for the United States Department of Agriculture, deter- 
mined the following amounts as necessary for the man or 
woman of average size. The woman is allowed less be- 
cause she averages less in weight. 



THE AMOUNT OF FOOD NECESSARY 



155 



Man with hard muscular work 4150 calories 

Man with moderately active work 3400 calories 

Man at sedentary or the woman with moderately ac- 
tive work 2700 calories 

Man without muscular exercise or the woman at light 

to moderate work 2450 calories 

How much protein is necessary daily is still a matter of 
controversy, but it is well established that the old notion 
that much meat or protein is necessary for strength is false. 
Some put the figure higher than others, but 300 to 400 
calories a day from protein is probably a safe amount for 
the average person. 

In stating the composition of food, sometimes the per- 
centages of the various ingredients are given. Another 
way of expressing it is to state the number of calories 
of heat given by the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in 
an amount of food which furnishes a total of one hundred 
calories of energy. This amount is known as the " stand- 
ard portion." The second method is perhaps less con- 
fusing, especially when comparisons between foods are to 
be made. 

For example, suppose a boiled potato and white flour 
are to be compared. The percentage composition of the 
two is as follows : 



Boiled potato 
Wheat flour . 



Water 



75.5% 
12.8% 



Protein 



2.5% 
10.8% 



Fat 



•1% 
.1% 



Carbo- 
hydrate 



20.9% 

74.8% 



With this great difference in the percentage of water pres- 
ent, it is evident that the percentages of the other ingredi- 
ents cannot be compared directly. 



156 



FOOD STUDY 



Compare this with the number of calories furnished by 
the ingredients in the hundred-calorie portions. 





Weight of 
100-Calorie Portion 


Calories prom 




Protein 


Fat 


Carbohydrate 


Boiled potato . . 
Wheat flour . . 


31 oz. 
1 oz. 


11 

12 


1 

3 


88 
85 



It is at once evident that they are not so unlike in their 
nutritive elements, but that about four times as much 
weight of potato must be had to provide the same amount 
of energy. 

If potatoes cost five cents for three pounds (If ^ per 
pound) and flour is five cents a pound, it is easy to cal- 
culate that four pounds of potatoes would cost six and 
two-thirds cents, while a pound of white flour would fur- 
nish the same amount of fuel value for five cents. 

Compare milk with flour. 



Flour 
Milk 



Water 



12.8% 
87.0% 



Protein 



10.8% 
3.3% 



Fat 



1.1% 
4.0% 



Carbo- 
hydrate 



74.8% 
5.0% 



The difference in the percentage of water present in the 
two makes it hard to decide which really furnishes the 
more protein, or fat, or carbohydrate. 







Weight of 
100-Calorie Portion 


Calories from 




Protein 


Fat 


Carbohydrate 


Flour .... 
Milk 


1 oz. 

5+oz. 


12 
19 


3 
52 


85 
29 



THE AMOUNT OF FOOD NECESSARY 157 

It may be seen at once, by the second table, that over five 
times as much milk is necessary to equal the total calories 
in flour, but that the milk will furnish almost twice as 
many calories from protein. If milk costs four cents a 
pint (about a pound), it is evidently much more expen- 
sive both as a source of energy and as a source of protein. 

Such comparisons are of great interest, for food value 
and cost, curiously, have no connection with each other. 
Some of the government pamphlets show by graphs the 
amount of fuel value which can be purchased in different 
foods for a given amount of money, but the price of foods 
changes so rapidly that these quickly become antiquated. 

In addition to the recognized food principles, there 
seems to be another class of substances present in foods, 
which are known as vitamines. These are present in 
natural foodstuffs in only small amounts, but they seem 
necessary, some for nutrition and others for growth. 
Fruits, vegetables, and milk are our best sources for these 
substances, so far as is known at present. The whole 
subject of vitamines is under investigation, and it is to be 
hoped that before long we shall be able to speak more 
definitely concerning them. However, they furnish an 
excellent additional reason for the inclusion of fruits and 
vegetables in our diet. 

In all these discussions, it should be remembered, no 
account has been taken of mineral matter. Sherman says 
that of the mineral elements, only calcium, iron, and phos- 
phorus need to be considered, if the diet be sufficient and 
balanced. (See the Appendix.) 

Since many of our servings of food are about a hun- 
dred-calorie portion or bear a simple relation to it, 
it is convenient to use such a table in estimating the 
fuel value of a meal. A table of this kind will be found 
in the Appendix. 



158 FOOD STUDY 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Office of Exp. Sta. Bulletin No. 28. 
"The Chemical Composition of American Food Materials." 

Questions 

1. Describe Swiss chard. Why is it not commonly found in the 
market? t ' 

2. List leaves which may be substituted for spinach as "greens." 

3. Can the outer leaves of lettuce, not desirable for salad, be used in 
this way ? 

4. If you had peas that you were not going to use for a couple of 
days, would they keep better cooked or raw ? How about potatoes ? 

5. Why must all green vegetables be washed before using, even 
though they look clean ? 

6. Make a list of vegetables classified as to composition. 

7. What vegetables and fruits contain more water than milk does ? 



XXXI 
SWEET-FLAVORED VEGETABLES 

Squash 

Buttered Beets 
A. Squash. 

Prepare squash, boiled, steamed, and baked. Com- 
pare the time of cooking, the texture, and the flavor. 

Boiled Squash. 

Cut the squash in pieces, pare, and remove seeds and 
strings. Cook in boiling, salted water, until soft. Drain, 
mash, and season with salt, pepper, and butter. 

Steamed Squash. 

Follow directions under boiled squash, except that, 
instead of boiling the squash, you should cook it in a 
strainer over boiling water. 



SQUASH 159 

Baked Squash. 

Prepare squash by cutting in squares and removing 
seeds and strings, but do not pare. Bake until soft. 

B. 1. Wash a beet and cut the top off close. Cook in 

hot water until tender. 
2. Wash a beet as before, but take pains not to 
break the skin, retain the root and at least an 
inch of the top. Cook as before. Compare 
results. When should beets be peeled, before or 
after cooking ? To serve, peel, and cut beets in 
half-inch slices and reheat in a little butter; 
season with salt, and pepper if desired. 

C. Class Experiment. Sugar Test. 

Very dilute copper sulphate and potassium hydroxide 
solutions are used in testing for sugar. 

1. Boil together a little of the two solutions, and note 
the color obtained when no sugar is present. 

2. To a few drops of glucose, add a little of the two 
solutions and boil. (Corn syrup may be used.) 
What is the color when sugar is present ? 

3. See if you can obtain this color by using granulated 
sugar in place of the glucose. 

4. Boil a little granulated sugar with some acid in the 
water. (Cream of tartar or vinegar may be used.) 
Now try the sugar test, but before boiling, be sure to 
add enough of the hydroxide to color the solution 
blue and not green. 

5. Boil small pieces of vegetables or fruit, such as beet, 
onion, sweet potato, grape, apple, prune, or date, with 
water, and then test the water for sugar. If the test 
is not obtained at once, try boiling first with acid, 
and then making the test. 



160 FOOD STUDY 

Cane and Beet Sugar 

Sucrose is the chemical name of the sugar used as lump, 
granulated, or powdered sugar. It occurs in large amounts 
in sugar cane and in the sugar palm, as well as in sugar 
beets. In the manufacture of sugar from sugar cane, the 
cane is crushed and the juice squeezed out by passing 
between a series of rollers while the pulp is sprayed with 
water. This gives what is called raw juice. The separa- 
tion and refining of the sugar is sometimes carried out by 
one process, sometimes by another. Lime is often used 
to neutralize the acidity of the juice, impurities are filtered 
off or allowed to settle out, and the residue is boiled re- 
peatedly, sugar crystallizing out after each boiling. In 
modern factories, this last process is accomplished in 
vacuum pans. The raw or brown sugar which is obtained 
requires still further purification. It is washed with sugar 
syrup, dissolved in hot water, clarified, and filtered first 
through cotton bags, then through bone-black filters, to 
remove as much of the color as possible, and again crys- 
tallized in vacuum pans. During the last process, the 
sugar is often "blued" to make it appear whiter. When 
we study in detail all the processes which sugar goes 
through, and all the machinery which is used in its manu- 
facture, it seems marvelous that sugar can be sold for a 
few cents a pound. 

Sugar from beets is manufactured by similar processes, 
but the juice is soaked out instead of being crushed out of 
the beet. As found on the market, the crystals of sugar 
from the one source are usually coarser than from the 
other, but the tw^o are equally valuable. The United 
States produces sugar in large quantities, but more from 
cane than from beets. Europe, on the other hand, makes 
beet sugar. 



CANE AND BEET SUGAR 161 

Refined sugar could also be manufactured from the sap 
of the sugar maple, although not very profitably, for the 
amount of sugar present is small ; but because the taste of 
the raw sugar is agreeable, maple sugar, as such, is put 
upon the market and obtains a good price. 

The amount of sugar used yearly is large. In this 
country, about eighty-five pounds per person is con- 
sumed, but of course some of this is used in industrial 
processes. It is only recently that sugar has been used 
freely, and it is still an open question whether such exten- 
sive use is desirable. Sugar not only lacks mineral salts, 
as has already been pointed out, but it shows some ten- 
dency to cause indigestion. In too great concentration, 
it abstracts water from the the mucous membrane. Sher- 
man suggests that this effect is easily illustrated by hold- 
ing a piece of hard candy in one side of the mouth for some 
time, without moving it. Then, too, sugar readily fer- 
ments in the stomach, and forms irritating acids. On the 
other hand, sugar is quickly digested and furnishes an 
immediate source of energy. 

In the household use of sugar, it should be remembered 
that the best time to eat sugar or candy is after meals. If 
taken with staple food, it often causes more to be eaten 
than is needed, or by cloying the appetite, produces the 
opposite effect. Taken between meals, it may upset the 
normal appetite. It is less likely to irritate the stomach, 
if taken with other food. Liberal amounts of water also 
tend to lessen the irritation. 

Sugar is a hearty food and can undoubtedly be used in 
larger quantities by very active people, hard laborers, 
and children, than by sedentary people, if it does not 
produce digestive disturbances. It is . often carried by 
soldiers or mountain climbers because it is a concentrated 
food. 



162 FOOD STUDY 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 93. **Sugar as 
Food" or Farmers' Bulletin, No. 535. "Sugar and Its Value 
as Food." 

Journal of Home Economies. Vol. VII, p. 544. ''The Consump- 
tion of Sugar." 

Questions 

1 . Make a list of common vegetables, giving season, amount needed 
for a family of four, and the probable cost of that amount when in 
season. (The work on this table may well be divided between the 
different members of the class.) 

2. Make a list of the cheaper vegetables, and give as many ways 
of preparing each as you can find. Consult cook books. 



XXXII 

CANDIES 

A. Class Experiment. 

The Stages in Sugar Cookery. 

Boil I c. sugar in J c. water. Test by dropping product 
into cold water at the following stages. Feel the ball in 
2, 3, 4, and 5. Note color in last. 

1. 233 degrees Falirenheit — "Hair" or "Thread" stage. 

2. 236-242 degrees Fahrenheit — Soft ball stage. 

3. 254 degrees Fahrenheit — Hard stage. 

4. 260-275 degrees Falirenheit — Crack stage. 

5. 290-350 degrees Fahrenheit — Caramel stage. 

6. 290 degrees Falirenheit — Hard crack stage. 

Syrup at the thread stage is used in making frosting. 

Prepare peanut brittle by pouring the syrup at caramel 
stage over chopped nuts spread on a buttered pan. Mark 
in squares as it cools. 



CARBOHYDRATES 163 

B. Class Experiment. Crystallization of Sugars. 

Dissolve f c. sugar in | c. water. Divide into 3 portions. 

1. Boil first portion to hard crack stage, and set aside 
to cool. 

2. To the second portion add J tsp. vinegar or lemon 
juice or a pinch of cream of tartar. Boil to hard 
crack stage and set aside to cool. 

3. To the third portion add one-fourth the volume of 
glucose. Boil to hard crack stage and set aside to 
cool. 

Why is acid or glucose added in making many candies ? 

C. Candies. 

Make such candies as time and circumstances warrant. 
Cook to : ^ 

1. Soft ball stage (238°) Panochi, Fudge (Chocolate 
cream candy), Cocoanut Cream Candy, Fondant. 

2. Hard ball stage (254°) Chocolate Caramels, Planta- 
tion Drops, Butter Cups. 

3. Crack stage (270°) Molasses Candy, Ice Cream 
Candy, Vinegar Candy, Popcorn Balls, Butter- 
scotch. 

4. Hard crack §tage (290°) Glace-Fruit, and Nuts. 
For recipes see cook-books. 

Carbohydrates 

Carbohydrates are sugars, and substances like cellulose, 
starch and pectin which may be changed into sugars 
either by boiling with acids or by ferment action. 

The carbohydrates are divided into three groups ac- 
cording to their complexity, and are called mono-, di-, 
and poly- saccharides. The chief members of the groups 
are as follows : 



164 



FOOD STUDY 



USOepartment of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A.CTroe: Director 



Rrepored by 

CFLANGWORTHY 
Expert in Charge of Nutrition InveStigeltions 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 

nniD ^ ^ip ESI nnffli ■S,„^&^, 

ft-otein Fat Cartohydrote* Ash Water Hi foo^ CalS^^ 

SUGAR MOLASSES 

GRANULATtO 

' " Wateri25.1 
is:100.0 



,sh:a2 




1860 CALORIES 
PER POUND 




l/^: 



I 



STICK CANDY 

Carliphydrates;96.5 



1290 CALnRIES 
PER POUND 



Waer:3.0 



Fuel valuG: 



Ash:0.5 



MAPLE SUGAR ^''Q^„'i^„':°!?,'^= 



HONEY 



Ash:0.! 



1540 



.-Water:16.3 



Fuel 



Watendg^ 
FV-otein;0.4- 



Ca^bo- Carbo- 

hydrates:82,8 hydi^s:81.2 




CALORIES PER POUND 



1520 



Fuel va^^^^^'-^-^ 



CALORIES PER POUND 



Composition of Foods containing Sugar 



CARBOHYDRATES 



165 



Monosaccharides 


DiSACCHARIDES 


Polysaccharides 


Glucose or dextrose 
Fructose or levulose 
Galactose 


Sucrose or " sugar " 
Milk sugar or lactose 
Malt sugar or maltose 


Starch 

Dextrine 

Cellulose 

Glycogen 

Pectin 



All the members of the first and second group are sugars, 
and all are soluble in water and more or less sweet in taste. 
The two groups are sometimes called single and double 
sugars. A plant probably manufactures a single sugar 
out of carbon dioxide and water, and then changes the 
single sugar into either double sugar or polysaccharides. 
When polysaccharides or disaccharides are digested, or 
boiled with water and acid, the plant-manufacturing 
process is reversed and the substances are finally broken 
down into single sugars. To prove this, chew a bit of 
cracker, being careful not to swallow it before the sweet 
taste of the sugar is evident. The breaking down pro- 
cess also goes on in the plant when stored starch or sugar 
is used for further growth, as, for example, in a potato 
when it sprouts. 

Glucose and fructose occur in many fruits and vegetables 
and are present in large quantities in honey. Glucose is 
used so extensively for food that it is also manufactured 
from cornstarch by boiling the starch with acid. The chief 
points to be remembered about these two sugars are that 
they do not need to undergo any process of digestion 
before being absorbed, that they do not crystallize so 
readily as cane sugar, and that they give the sugar test. 
Galactose is a digestive product of milk sugar and is not 
found as such in foods. 

Of the disaccharides, sucrose and lactose are the more 



166 FOOD STUDY 

important in our foods. Lactose is found in milk. It 
ferments in the stomach less readily than sucrose and so is 
probably much better for babies. Accordingly, modified 
milk and other baby foods are often prepared by the addi- 
tion of lactose. It is also used as a basis for sugar pills. 
It is manufactured commercially by separating it from milk. 
When sucrose is boiled with an acid in the presence of water 
it changes into equal parts of glucose and fructose. Glu- 
cose is far less sweet than sucrose, but fructose is much 
sweeter. Consequently the mixture, "invert" sugar as it 
is called, is not very different in sweetness from the original 
sucrose, but the latter is probably a little sweeter. Some 
recipes call for the addition of sugar to acid fruits after 
boiling, so that this change will not take place as a result 
of the cooking. The saving is probably so small as not to 
be appreciable. On the other hand, this change is delib- 
erately sought after in making candies like fondant and 
fudge which must be smooth and velvety, not granular, 
and in candies like butter-scotch which must not "sugar." 

The single sugars crystallize with much more difficulty 
than sucrose, and the presence of even small amounts of 
them makes the candy less liable to "grain" or "sugar." 
Sometimes, instead of bringing about the change by boil- 
ing with acid, a little glucose syrup is added to produce the 
same result. 

During digestion all the carbohydrates are broken down 
into single sugars and are then absorbed and carried to the 
liver. Here and in the muscles any sugar in excess of that 
needed in the blood is stored as glycogen, or animal starch. 
At need, the process is reversed, the stored glycogen is 
again broken down into sugar to keep the supply of it 
constant in the blood. 

Saccharin is a chemical substance with a sweet taste 
and is entirely unlike the carbohydrates. It has no 



CARBOHYDRATES 167 

food value, and as, in too large amounts, it interferes with 
digestion, its use in food sold in interstate commerce has 
been forbidden by the United States government. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 93, "Sugar 
as Food ", or Farmers' Bulletin No. 535, ''Sugar and its 
Value as Food." 

Commercial Geographies and Atlases. 

Questions 

1. Compare sugar and starch in appearance, in taste, in their 
behavior in cold and hot water, and in their tendency to crystallize. 

2. Compare the cost of a pound of cornstarch, of flour, of sugar. 

3. What other reasons besides the economic one can you give 
why it would be unwise to omit all starch from our diet and replace 
it with sugar ? 

4. What are brown sugar, molasses, powdered sugar, lump sugar ? 

5. Why can candy with brown sugar, molasses, or glucose, be 
easily made with the addition of acids ? 

6. Grind some granulated sugar in a mortar and taste it. If 
powdered sugar tastes less sweet than granulated, is this a proof 
that it is adulterated ? 

7. If sugar were adulterated with either sand or starch, how 
would these manifest themselves ? 

8. What different kinds of **lump" sugar are there and what is 
the difference between them ? 

9. Which costs most by the pound, granulated or lump sugar? 
Why do many people consider it less expensive to serve lump sugar 
on the table ? 

10. Where is sugar produced? Do we export or import sugar? 
Do we use more cane or beet sugar ? 

11. How is glucose manufactured? Is it healthful? Why has 
there been a prejudice against it? 



168 FOOD STUDY 

XXXIII 

MEAT CAKES WITH CREAMED TURNIPS 

A. Class Experiment. Tests with Meat. 

Soak some ground meat for a few moments in a little cold 
water. Pour off the liquid and divide it into two parts. 

1. Test one part by boiling it with a few drops of nitric 
acid, and then cooling it and adding ammonia. Test, 
in the same way, a bit of the meat fiber from which 
the juice has been soaked out. Recall and compare 
with the experiment on egg white. 

2. Heat the other portion to simmering and observe. 
Then boil it. Compare with the experiment on egg 
white. 

B. Class Experiment. The Structure of Meat. 

1. Scrape a small piece of raw beef in the same direction 
as the fiber with a dull knife, and notice the structure. 
Can you see any fat among the fibers ? 

2. Draw a muscle fiber as it appears under the micro- 
scope. 

C. Prepare Broiled Meat Cakes. 

1. Grind the beef, season with salt, and pepper if desired, 
and shape lightly into small flat cakes. Grease 
a frying pan lightly (a piece of the meat fat may be 
rubbed over the hot pan), and broil the cakes. Serve 
with creamed turnips. 

MEAT 
Structure and Composition 

Meat is made up of fibers which are embedded in and 
held together by connective tissue. The connective tissue 



MEAT 



169 



U.S. Deportment of Agricufture 

Office of Experimeflt Stations 

A.C.True: Director 



Prepared by 

CPLANGWORTHY 

Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigcitions 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 



QUID 

fVotarx 



Fat Carbohydrdtes 



Ash 



mm 



Water 



LAMB CHOP 

EOIBU: PORTION 



Fuel Value 
is S(;. In. Equals 
1000 Calories 



PORK CHOP 

EDIBIX PORTION 



Fat:30.1 




■Ash:9.1 

8^0 CALORICS 
PER POUND 



Composition of Meat 



170 FOOD STUDY 

is composed of two proteins, collagen and elastin. The 
collagen, when boiled with water, forms gelatine. The 
fibers are hollow with walls composed of the protein sub- 
stance called elastin. This is like collagen in some of its 
properties, but it will not dissolve on boiling with water. 
The content of the fibers is called muscle juice. It is 
composed of water in which are proteins, coloring matter, 
salts, and extractives. Besides this, there is fat deposited 
in varying amounts, mainly in the connective tissue. In 
beef, the fat is usually in sufficiently thick layers to be seen 
readily ; in pork, the fat surrounds the fibers in such small 
particles as not to be visible, although present in a generous 
amount. The proteins of the muscle juice are mainly 
myosin and albumin, and both coagulate with heat. The 
extractives, so named because they can be extracted from 
the meat by boiling it in water, are of value because they 
give the meat its flavor. Although they contain nitrogen, 
they have practically no food value, since they cannot 
build tissue nor furnish heat to the body. They are 
stimulants, however, and cause a flow of digestive juices 
in the stomach, which aids in the digestion of food. Lean 
meat shows about the following composition : 

Edible Meat 



Water .... 
Mineral matter . 

Fat 

Muscle fibre . . 
Connective tissue 
Extractives . . 



75.0% to 77.0% 
0.8% to 1.8% 
C.5% to 3.0% 

13.0 % to 18.0 % 
2.0% to 5.0% 
0.5% 



Shortly after an animal is slaughtered a condition known 
as rigor mortis sets in, during which the muscles are very 
stiff. Meat must be eaten either before this begins, or 
after the meat has hung for a while. In hanging, acids 



MEAT 171 

develop which perhaps aid in softening the meat again, 
and certainly add to its flavor. 

The cuts of meat which are tender usually command 
the highest price. They come from the parts of the animal 
which are least toughened by exercise, but there is con- 
siderable difference in tenderness in the "better cuts," 
breed, age, size, and the manner in which the animal has i 
been fattened, all affecting the result. The length of the I 
fibers seems to be another factor in the question of tough- 
ness. Loin steaks and rib roasts are good examples of 
choice cuts. It is interesting to know, however, that many . 
of the cheaper cuts contain more extractives and less water, ) 
so that they are both better flavored and more nutritious. > 
Waste, too, must be taken into account. Instructive data 
on this subject can be obtained in Bulletin 158, of the 
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Experience is needful before one can recognize good 
meats in the market. This can best be acquired by getting 
a butcher to show different grades of meat, and to explain 
why one is better than another. Here are some of the 
chief points to be noted. 

Beef 

The meat should be bright red after standing, but it 
will be purplish red if recently cut. It should be fine- 
grained, firm, and the lean well-mottled with fat. Coarse, 
flabby, dark beef is poor meat ; if it lacks fat, it is underfed 
or old. 

Veal 

Young veal is generally excluded from market; that 
from an animal about two months old is considered best. 
The meat is much paler than beef, and shows no mottling 
of the lean with fat. It should be pinkish and fine-grained. 



172 



FOOD STUDY 




XU.,.;. 



1. Neck. 

2. Chuck. 

3. Shoulder. 

4. Fore shank. 

5. Breast. 



^pi^y 



6. Ribs. 

7. Loin. 

8. Flank. 

9. Leg. 

10. Hind shank. 



Cuts of Veal 





1. Neck. 

2. Chuck. 

3. Shoulder, 



4. Flank. 

5. Loin. 

6. Leg. 



Cuts of Mutton and Lamb 




MEAT 



173 



Mutton 

This is from sheep at least three years old. It should be 
fine-grained and pinkish red with hard white fat. 

Lamb 

Spring lamb is from an animal eight weeks to three 
months old. All lamb is less than a year old. The meat 
differs in color from mutton, but the two are more easily 
distinguished by the bone. In lamb, this is pinker and 
ridged or saw-like at the joint of the leg. In mutton, the 
bone is whiter and smoother and less ridged. 







7 


3\ _ 


8 


7^ 


^ 


I 




4 




1 ^ 

6 j 


-\ 


' 


J 




x/ 


»4 


W"^ 










1. Head. 

2. Shoulder. 

3. Back. 

4. Middle cut. 

5. Belly. 

6. Ham. 

7. Rib. 

8. Loin. 












Cuts 


OF Pork 




Pork 

The meat should be fine-grained and firm, and the fat 
should not be soft. The meat is very pale. 



174 FOOD STUDY 

All meat requires constant care, as it spoils easily. It 
should be kept in a cool place and not left wrapped in 
paper. If placed directly on the ice, much juice is lost. 

Meat which has become slightly tainted may be washed 
with water in which a little cooking soda has been dis- 
solved. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 39. ''Economical Use of Meat in the Home." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 34. "Meats : Composition and Cooking.'* 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 162. "Experiment Station Work," pp. 9-10. 

Questions 

1. Account for the yellow stain nitric acid leaves, if you spill it on 
your hands. 

2. Does tender or tough meat contain more connective tissue? 

3. If much-used muscle is tougher, which parts of a steer or sheep 
would you expect to find tough ? Which tender ? 

4. Is tender or tough meat likely to be the more juicy ? 

5. For what reasons should meat be unwrapped before putting it 
away when it comes from market? 

6. Why, before cooking, should meat be wiped with a damp cloth 
rather than washed ? 

7. Which food principle is practically absent in meat? Mention 
foods served with meat, which would be particularly adapted to 
make good the deficiency. 



ROAST BEEF 175 

XXXIV 

TENDER MEAT 

Roast Beef 

Broiled Beefsteak and Corn Pudding 

A. Prepare Roast Beef.^ 

Weigh the beef before and after cooking. Wipe 
beef and, if necessary, skewer into shape. Dredge all 
sides with salt, pepper, and flour (Why is this added?). 
Insert a thermometer with the bulb in the center of the 
roast. Place fat side up, in a hot oven at 428° F. for 
fifteen minutes, then reduce the heat to 342° F. and 
cook until the inner temperature of the meat as shown 
by the thermometer reaches, if rare is desired, 131° to 
149° F. ; if medium, 149° to 158° F. ; if well-done, 158° to 
176° F. If meat is quite lean, it may be necessary to add 
fat to the pan. If very dry, add a little water. This is 
undesirable, as it may give the beef a "stewed" flavor. 

Let the thermometer remain in for some time after the 
meat has been removed from the oven. Explain the 
change in temperature which takes place. 

Calculate the length of time necessary for each pound of 
meat roasted rare, medium, or well-done. Why is the 
meat put into a very hot oven at first ? Why is the tem- 
perature lowered later ? 

B. Class Experiment. Cooking Meat. 

1. Sprinkle a bit of raw meat with salt. What effect 
does the salt have upon the juices of the 
meat? 

^ The roast can be cooked rare and used for left-over meat. 



176 FOOD STUDY 

2. Take two small pieces of meat. 

a. Put one in a cold frying pan and cook it, 

heating slowly at first. 
h. Put the other in a hot frying pan. 
Explain why the juices flow in one case and not 
in the other. 

C. Prepare Broiled Beefsteak. When will you 
salt it ? Serve with corn pudding. 

Corn Pudding (Corn a la Southern). 

To one can chopped corn, add two eggs slightly beaten, 
one teaspoon of salt, one-eighth teaspoon pepper, one and 
one-half tablespoons melted butter, and one pint scalded 
milk; turn into a buttered pudding-dish and bake in 
slow oven until firm. 

From the " Boston Cooking-School Cook Book." By 
Fannie M. Farmer. 

Cuts of Beef and Principles of Cooking Meat 

Beef is not always cut up in exactly the same way. In 
general, the carcass is first split into two "sides" of beef, 
then divided into the fore and hind quarters. From the 
fore quarter are cut rib roasts and chuck. The first ribs 
cut off are the best, known as ''prime." The chuck ribs 
may also be used for roasts or steaks. Brisket, shoulder, 
clod, cross-ribs, plate and navel are all used for corned 
beef ; while they, as well as the neck and shank, are used 
for stews, ground meat, or soup meat. The shank is used 
for soups. 

The hind quarter consists of loin, rump, round, flank, and 
hind shank. The loin furnishes the choicer steaks, club, 
porterhouse, and sirloin, which are cooked by broiling, or 
cut into roasts. The rump is used for steaks and roasts, 



CUTS OF BEEF 



177 




1. Neck. 

2. Chuck. 

3. Rib. 

4. Shoulder cled. 

5. Fore shank. 

6. Brisket. 

7. Cross ribs. 

8. Plate. 

9. Navel. 

10. Loin. 

11. Flank. 

12. Rump. 

13. Round. 

14. Second cut round. 

15. Hind shank. 



Cuts of Beef 




BEEF STEW 179 

is better than can be obtained by treating such meat as a 
better cut. 

Since heat toughens meat, special care needs to be exer- 
cised in the preparation of left-over meats. If the meat 
is tender and already well cooked, it should be reheated 
but not recooked ; if tough or insufficiently cooked, it 
should be simmered until tender. 

Since tenderness is such a desirable characteristic that 
it is the one on which price is based, great pains should be 
taken not to toughen choice cuts of meat in cooking, and 
to prepare the tougher cuts so that they may be as desir- 
able as possible. Many cooks woefully fail in this respect. 

References 
As in last lesson. (Farmer's Bulletins, No. 39, 34 and 162.) 

Questions 

1. Would you need a hotter or a cooler oven to roast two pieces of 
beef to the same degree, if one piece were very large and the other 
very small ? 

2. How thick should steak be cut ? 

3. If you wish steak well done, will you merely cook it longer ? 

4. To what is the loss in weight due in roasting beef ? 

5. Which cuts of beef furnish the most lean meat for the price paid ? 



XXXV 

BEEF STEW 

Dumplings 

A. Class Experiments. Cooking Meat. 

1. Sear a small piece of meat in a frying pan. Pour 

half a cup of cold water over it and simmer for 

half an hour. 



180 FOOD STUDY 

2. Repeat with a piece of meat of the same size and 
shape, but omit the searing. 

Compare the appearance and taste of the resulting 
broths. Cut the meat open and see whether one tastes 
or appears different from the other. 

B. Prepare Beef Stew. 

Cut lean beef into small cubes. Season each piece 
highly, dredge with flour, and brown on all sides in a frying 
pan with a little suet. Add enough water to cover meat 
(reserving one piece for the next experiment), let it come 
rapidly to the boiling point, then simmer or finish the cook- 
ing in a double boiler until tender. At least two hours is 
necessary. Before the stew is finished, diced vegetables 
may be added, and twenty minutes allowed for them to 
cook. If the gravy is not thick enough, a little flour and 
water may be added. This should be done before cooking 
the dumplings. If left-over roast beef is used, will it be 
necessary to brown ? Should the left-over gravy be added ? 

C. Serve the Stew with Dumplings. 

Sift together one cup of flour, two teaspoons of baking- 
powder, and a quarter of a teaspoon of salt ; then stir in 
enough milk to make a soft dough, about a third of a cup. 

1. Drop a spoon of the mixture into the stew, covering 
it with the gravy. 

2. Drop the rest by spoonfuls over the meat in the stew 
in such a way that the dumpling is held well out 
of the water. 

In which case is the dumpling soggy? 

D. Class Experiment. Keeping Meat Tender. 

To show why meat is simmered instead of boiled. 
Boil the cube of meat reserved from (B) for an hour, and 



MEAT INSPECTION 181 

then compare it with a piece of meat from the stew which 
has been cooked the same length of time. 

Meat Inspection 

Not only is the slaughtering and packing of meat the 
largest manufacturing process in the United States, but 
our consumption of meat is very great. Reports for the 
United States Department of Agriculture estimated the 
per capita consumption of beef, lamb, mutton, pork, and 
veal in 1900 as 178.75 lbs. while that of Great Britain was 
only 122 lbs., Germany 99 lbs., and France 80 lbs. More- 
over, about a third of all the expenditure for food materials 
is spent for meat. When this is realized, as well as the fact 
that meat is one of the foods " most subject to conditions 
rendering it unwholesome or even dangerous ", it is no 
wonder that the Federal government yearly appropriates 
a large sum of money for meat inspection and makes 
the penalties for violation of the meat-inspection law 
much more severe than for violation of the other food 
laws. 

Meat may be dangerous, first, because animal parasites 
may be present, such as trichina in pork ; or, second, be- 
cause bacteria may be present. The latter may be dan- 
gerous for two reasons. They may be bacteria causing 
diseases which are capable of being communicated through 
the eating of the flesh, or they may be bacteria which 
produce poisons or ptomains in the meat, which, if eaten, 
may cause illness or even death. 

Federal inspection excludes from interstate commerce 
and exportation all meat found unfit for food, and al- 
lows only meat to be sold which is considered as coming 
from healthy animals, slaughtered under sanitary condi- 
tions. Since meat is an ideal culture medium for bacteria, 



182 FOOD STUDY 

it is necessary not only to see that it is from healthy animals 
but that it is not infected afterwards. Such infection could 
easily take place if flies and dust were allowed, or if the 
meat were handled by men with unclean and infected 
hands. What infection may mean is evident from recent 
studies made on Hamburg steak, which report as high as 
525,000,000 bacteria to a gram of meat, even average 
samples showing about 10,000,000. Fortunately these 
are not usually bacteria which cause disease or produce 
ptomains. 

As they know of this government inspection, many 
people have an unwarranted feeling of safety in buying 
meat. Too often it is not realized that the Federal 
government can control only those slaughter houses which 
send meat into interstate commerce. Smaller houses, 
selling in one state only, are not under federal juris- 
diction at all. Hence, state and city inspection laws are 
also necessary. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 

125. "The Federal Meat-Inspection Service." 
Commercial Geographies. 

Questions 

1. What advantages are there in serving meat cooked, instead of 
raw? 

2. What methods of preserving meat are allowed by the Federal 
law? 

3. Is there any limit to the time meat may be kept in cold storage 
before being sold ? 

4. What are the causes of the increased cost of meat ? 

5. What trade in meat has the United States with other countries ? 

6. How much Hamburg steak would you buy to serve four people ? 
How much tenderloin steak? How large a roast of beef? How 
heavy a leg of lamb ? 



LEFT-OVERS 183 

XXXVI 

LEFT-OVERS 

Southern Spoon Bread 

A. Left-overs. Each student is to come to class 
ready to prepare some dish from "left-over" meat. 

B. Spoon Bread. Serve the dish prepared in (A) 
with Southern Spoon Bread. Use two tablespoons of 
cornmeal and other ingredients in proportion. 

Southern Spoon Bread. 

Place two cups of cornmeal mixed with a quarter of a 
cup of flour in a strainer and pour boiling water over it. 
Let the mixture drain. Add 

1 tsp. salt 

1 tbsp. melted fat 

2f c. sour milk or buttermilk 

1 egg, beaten slightly 

1 tsp. soda 

Bake in a buttered dish until of the consistency of a firm 
mush. Serve with gravy or jelly. 

Proteins 

Much has been said about proteins, but to understand 
their relative value and the place in the diet, it is necessary 
to know more about them. American physiologists are 
using the classification of which a simplified form is given 
here. The proteins are divided into three main classes : 

I. Simple proteins, which are found as such. 

a. Albumins — as found in egg white, in meat, in 
wheat, in milk, and in many other protein foods. 



184 



FOOD STUDY 



U.S.Deportment of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A.C.Trwe: Director 



Rrepared by 

CFLANGWORTTIY 

Expert in Change of Nutrition lnvestig<rtions 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 



mnD 

fVertan 



Fat Carbohydrdtes Ash 



aura 

Water 



^Fuel Value 
iZ Sq. In. Equals 
1000 Calories 



Water; 



WALNUT 



CHESTNUT 




5h:2i 



„_. „^ o JfAsh:2.0 1875 CALORIES 

PLR POUND rrotein.Zj.o FatTSS.S ^^^ pound 

Fuel value 



PEANUT BUTTER 2500 calories 

PCR POUND 




Carbo- 
WWWVj h^^tes : 1 7.1 



Ash: 5.0 — »E^S^^S 



2825 CALDHIE5 PER POUND 



COCOANUT 

DESICCATED 

Water: 3.5 



-R-otein:29.3 Rrof&nTeia'l 




757.^ 



3125 



CALORIES PER POUND 



Composition of Nuts 



c. Glutelins. 

d. Alcohol-soluble proteins. 



PROTEINS 185 

h. Globulins — of which the myosin of meat is a 
good example. It is also present in small 
quantities in egg white and in wheat, as well as 
in many other foods. 

Gluten from wheat 
is made up of two 
proteins, glutenin 
which belongs to 
group (c) and gha- 
din which is an 
alcohol-soluble pro- 
tein. 

e. Albuminoids — of which collagen, elastin, and 
ossein of bone are examples. 

II. Conjugated proteins — which are proteins linked with 
some other substance. Casein, which is protein 
linked with a phosphorus compound and is the chief 
protein of milk, is one example. Haemoglobin, which 
is protein linked with the coloring matter of blood, 
is another. 

III. Derived proteins. These are formed or derived from 
the others. For example, in digestion proteins are 
changed first into meta-proteins, then into proteoses, 
and peptones; these last three are all derived 
proteins. When protein is coagulated, as egg white 
when it is cooked, it becomes a derived protein. 

All these proteins can be still further broken dow^n into 
amino acids. This action is probably largely carried out 
in digestion, and then these amino acids are afterwards 
combined and built up into body proteins if they are used 
to repair tissue. But analysis shows that not all proteins 
contain the same amino acids, and even where the same 
acids are present, they vary greatly in amount. This 



186 FOOD STUDY 

would make us suspect that the different proteins might 
have different food values, and experiments have shown 
this to be true. Certain proteins w^hen used alone seem 
insufficient. While some will perfectly support life and 
growth, others will support life, but not growth, and 
still others will not support life at all. Casein is a good 
example of the first, while it has been known for a long 
while that gelatine had the characteristics of the third class. 
For a while gelatine was not called a protein at all. Now 
it is known by analysis that the difficulty with gelatine is 
that certain of the amino acids found in casein are absent. 
This does not make the acids which are present of no 
value, but means that gelatine is incomplete by itself and 
needs to be supplemented by proteins which contain the 
missing amino acids. 

As the body proteins are many, and also varied in the 
kinds and amounts of amino acids they contain, it will 
easily be seen why it is so difficult to state an exact amount 
of protein which is needed daily in the diet. It undoubtedly 
makes a difference what the proteins are that are eaten. 
Since so little really is known about the whole matter, we 
have here one of the best arguments for variety in diet, 
that all the needed substances may be present. Until 
more is known, it will be impossible to settle the question 
whether a vegetarian diet is superior to one which contains 
animal protein. Many people who argue for vegetarian- 
ism are advocates of it only in its modified form, that is, 
they believe in the use of milk and eggs, but not in the 
use of meat and fish which involves the sacrifice of life. 

So far as is known, there is no essential difference be- 
tween proteins from vegetable sources, and from animal 
sources, but it is true that because of the way they are 
combined, the latter are often much more completely 
absorbed and, perhaps, are more quickly digested as well. 



PROTEINS 187 

Vegetarians are apparently proving that meat-eating 
is not essential to life. Still it is true that people like 
meat, and that the dominating races of the world are meat 
eaters, although we are not sure whether that is true be- 
cause of, or in spite of, that fact. On the other hand, 
there is little evidence that the vegetarians are really 
any better off physically than the meat eaters. There is 
some evidence that endurance is better in those who eat 
less protein than in those who eat much, but this is entirely 
aside from the source of the protein. Fisher, at Yale 
University, has tried experiments in which people who ate 
less protein showed much greater ability to carry on given 
exercises than did those who habitually used more protein. 
Such tests as deep knee-bending, leg-raising, and holding 
the arms out horizontally, were tried. Not only could the 
low-protein consumers hold out longer, but they were less 
exhausted afterwards and suffered less from sore muscles. 
Whether this effect is due to the lack of alkaline salts in 
meat, or to some other cause, is not known. However, 
considering all the evidence, it would seem as if Americans 
at least would do w^ell to lessen the amount of meat they 
habitually consume. As we are the greatest meat eaters 
among the civilized nations, it would seem that this could 
be done with perfect safety and possible benefit. 



References 
As in previous chapter. 

Also U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 526. "Mut- 
ton and Its Value in the Diet." 



Questions 

1. Why is casserole cookery especially adapted to the preparation 
of tough meat ? 

2. List good ways of preparing different left-over meats. 



188 FOOD STUDY 

3. Make a table showing the cost per pound of the best, of a 
fairly desirable, and of a cheap cut of beef, veal, mutton, lamb, and 
pork. Also show the cost of liver, kidney, tripe, heart, sweetbreads, 
tongue, brains, ham, and sausage. 

4. Read up on the subject and debate the question of vegetarian- 
ism. 



XXXVII 

MEAT SOUPS 

A. Class Experiment. 

The Soluble Constituents of Meat. 

1 . Place a two-inch cube of beef in a third of a cup of cold 
water. Let it soak half an hour, then heat slowly to 
boiling, noting (1) the temperature at which coagu- 
lation takes place and (2) that at which the color 
changes. Continue heating ten minutes. 

2. Cook a second cube of exactly the same size as in (1), 
but do not soak it. / 

3. Take a third cube like the others, grind or chop it 
into very small pieces, and cook as in (1). 

Compare the resulting broths. 

B. Prepake Soup. 

Allow a pint and a half of water for each pound of 
meat and bone. Remove the fat by passing a small 
piece of ice, wrapped in a .cloth, around on the 
surface of the soup. Divide into two portions. 

1 . Clear the first portion with the white of an egg. Beat 
the egg slightly and crush the shell, allowing one egg 
white and shell to each two quarts of soup. Add 
to the soup, bring slowly to the boiling point, and 
skim, or strain through cloth. 



MEAT SOUPS 189 

2. Serve the second portion with vegetables, or rice, 
macaroni, or barley. 

C, Class Experiment. The Use of Bones in Soup. 

Examine the structure of a piece of bone. Put two 
pieces as nearly alike as possible to soak, one in dilute 
hydrochloric acid, the other in water. Let them stand in 
a cool place for several days. Compare the results. On 
what has the acid acted ? Examine the ossein which is 
left. Now cook each bone separately in just enough 
water to cover and until the water is boiled down to one- 
half the amount. Let cool. Compare the consistency. 

Meat Soups 

Liebig, who is sometimes called the father of organic 
chemistry, taught that protein was the sole source of 
muscular energy, and that meat extracts were of great 
nutritive value. Even Liebig afterwards realized that 
this last was wrong, that the meat extract was a stimulant 
instead of a food. But notwithstanding, the notion was 
held in popular opinion for a long time, and some people 
to-day still believe the meat extract gives strength to 
invalids. True meat extracts are mainly composed of the 
flavoring matter of meat with some mineral salts. Practi- 
cally no fat, no gelatine, or other proteins are present. 
We can see readily that this means no real food value. 
The extracts may have their place, however, as stimulants. 
They are often fed to invalids under special conditions, 
or used to flavor soups or sauces. 

Only slightly more nutritious are the home-made meat 
broths and beef tea. They contain some protein, partly 
gelatine, and a little fat, but are, after all, mostly water. 
A pint of beef broth made from a pound of beef and a half 



190 FOOD STUDY 

pound of veal bone shows less than one and a half per cent 
of protein, and about one and a half per cent of fat, and 
although a strong soup, it contains over ninety-five per 
cent of water. As soups may contain even ninety-eight 
per cent of water, it is quite evident that anyone fed on 
beef broth would not be getting much food. 

Meat juices, both home-made and preserved, contain 
more nutriment. The home-made juices differ according 
to the cut of beef used and the method of extraction. 
They average about five per cent of coagulable protein. 
But Hutchison calculates that about three pints of such 
juice would be necessary to feed an invalid for a day. 
While the commercial beef juices run higher in protein 
than those extracted at home, their cost is very great. 
Hutchison suggests, therefore, the substitution of egg 
white with water flavored with beef extract, when beef 
juice is especially called for. 

It is evident that meat broths, extract, tea, and the 
like, are all low in food value. Nevertheless they may have 
a place in the diet. They are used sometimes with other 
food to stimulate the flow of the digestive juices and to act 
as appetizers. This is their logical use at the beginning 
of a dinner. Because they are really light food, they are 
better before a hearty meal than a thickened cream soup, 
or a puree. Sometimes they are used when it is better for 
the patient not to have much to eat, to satisfy his desire 
for food. Suppose, for example, that a person has broken 
a leg and is laid up for a while. It is difficult to make 
such a person, not sick and with a normal appetite, realize 
that he is better off with less food than he needs when he 
is more active. Here, broths and soups and beverages 
are an aid in adding bulk to the diet, without furnishing 
too much food. 

If meat broths contain so little nutriment, evidently the 



GELATINE DISHES 191 

meat used to make them is almost as nutritious as before 
it was used. It has lost flavor and needs to be made 
palatable, but with proper treatment is still valuable as 
food. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 27. ''Bouillon Cubes: 
Their Contents and Food Value Compared with Meat Extracts 
and Home-made Preparations of Meat." 

Questions 

1. Why is bone added to soup? Should it be split into pieces? 

2. Consult cook books and make lists of herbs and of vegetables 
which may be used in meat soups. 

3. Would you allow more water to meat in making soup with 
vegetables than without ? 

4. Devise ways for utilizing the meat which has been used in soup 
making. Is such use worth while ? 



XXXVIII 

GELATINE DISHES 

Lemon Jelly 
Snow Pudding 
Bavarian Cream 

A. Class Experiments. Gelatine. 

1. Soak a fourth of a teaspoon of gelatine in a table- 
spoon of cold water for five minutes. Does it 
dissolve? What has happened? Add two 
tablespoons of boiling water. Compare the 
result of putting two tablespoons of boiling 
water directly on a quarter of a teaspoon of 



192 FOOD STUDY 

gelatine not been soaked in cold water. Which 
method will you use in preparing gelatine? 

2. Measure the number of tablespoons of gelatine 
in a box. How much does a tablespoon of 
gelatine weigh ? How much jelly will it make ? 
See directions with the box. 

3. Compare the cost, the net weight, and the 
amount of jelly supposed to be made from 
packages of at least three different well-known 
gelatines. 

B. Prepare Gelatine Dishes. 

Dissolve one tablespoon of gelatine in nine table- 
spoons of water. Divide into three portions. How much 
more liquid can you add to each and obtain the proper 
consistency for jelly? 

1. Make the first portion into a plain jelly, using lemon 
or orange juice for the additional liquid. For the 
amount of flavoring and sweetening follow the rec- 
ipes supplied with the box. 

2. Make the second portion into a sponge. Follow 
the recipe for snow pudding. 

3. Make the third into a Bavarian cream. 

Different flavors may be used, or a single flavor, — as, 
for example, coffee may be used in all three. 

Place each in a wet mold, put in a cool place to harden. 
If you wish to use them at once, surround the molds with 
crushed ice and salt. 

Gelatine 

Gelatine for commerce is made from the skin, ligaments, 
and bones of animals. It is put on the market in a number 
of forms. Of these, sheet gelatine is possibly the cheapest, 
but pulverized gelatine is the most convenient. 



GELATINE 193 

As a gelatine jelly usually contains only about two per 
cent of gelatine, such dishes evidently are not very hearty. 
For this reason, they make excellent light desserts to use 
after a substantial meal, or as a hot-weather dish. Since 
they are also easily digested and absorbed, they are valu- 
able, too, in invalid diets. But, combined with much 
cream and sugar, a gelatine dish may be made very nutri- 
tious. 

A word of warning must be given in regard to the use of 
pineapple and gelatine. This fruit contains a ferment 
which is capable of liquefying the gelatine, so that if the 
fruit is used raw, the jelly fails to set. If the pineapple 
is heated, this ferment is destroyed ; so that pineapple 
jelly may be made with either canned pineapple, or fresh 
pineapple which has been stewed for a few moments. 

In making meat soups, gelatine is formed from the bone 
and connective tissue which are present in the meat. 
Since the bones of young animals contain more gelatine- 
making material than is found in the bones of older animals, 
while, on the other hand, the meat of older animals has 
most connective tissue, this explains why veal bones are 
so often used with beef in soup making. Hutchison quotes 
experiments which show that the buying of bones to obtain 
gelatine is much more expensive than adding commercial 
gelatine to soup, and suggests that the bones themselves 
should be used only in order to utilize what would other- 
wise be waste material. 

Agar-agar, a Japanese sea-weed, is sometimes used 
instead of gelatine, especially by vegetarians. It passes 
through the body without being digested, and so has no 
food value. It has the advantage of not being so easily 
liquefied as gelatine and can be made without ice in warm 
weather. The vegetable gelatines on the market are 
usually agar-agar preparations. 



194 FOOD STUDY 

Irish moss is another seaweed sold in a dried form. It 
has a pecuHar flavor which is greatly relished by some 
people. Like agar-agar, it is probably not nutritious. 
When made into a jelly with milk, it may, however, 
furnish a pleasing variety, and is at least as nourishing as 
the milk alone. 

Questions 

1. Compare the cost of a plain fruit gelatine with the cost of the 
same dish made with a "ready-to-mix" preparation. 

2. What advantage have the pulverized gelatines over the sheet 
form? 

3. How many classes of gelatine desserts are there ? Consult cook 
books. 

4. What relation is there between gelatine and glue ? 



XXXIX 

REVIEW LESSON 

Dinner 

Split Pea Soup 

Spanish Cream 

Prepare and Serve a Dinner. 
Suggested menu : 

Soup — Split pea soup. 
Meat — Pork chops. 
Vegetables — 

Creamed string beans (canned), or 

Creamed turnips. 

Mashed potatoes. 
Dessert — Spanish cream. 



STYLES OF SERVING 195 

Split Pea Soup. 

Soak a cup of peas for an hour or so, then drain, add a 
quart of cold water, and a slice or two of onion, and simmer 
until the peas are soft. This will take at least two hours. 
Rub through a strainer, and reheat, thinning with milk 
until the consistency of soup. Thicken with flour as in 
potato soup. A tablespoon of butter will improve the 
flavor, or a piece of fat salt pork may be simmered with 
the peas. 

Spanish Cream. 

I box gelatine or Yolks 3 eggs 

1 tbsp. granulated gelatine | c. sugar (scant) 

3 c. milk I tsp. salt 

Whites 3 eggs 1 tsp. vanilla 

Scald milk with gelatine, add sugar, pour slowly on 
yolks of eggs slightly beaten. Return to double boiler 
and cook until thickened, stirring constantly; remove 
from range, add salt, flavoring, and whites of eggs beaten 
stiff. Turn into individual molds, first dipped in cold 
w^ater, and chill; serve with cream. More gelatine will 
be required if large molds are used. 

From the "Boston Cooking-School Cook Book." By 
Fannie M. Farmer. 

Styles of Serving 

There are two styles of serving meals — the English 
and the Russian. 

According to the English style, everything is served 
at the table, — soup from a tureen, meat from a 
platter placed in front of the host, the dishes being 
passed either by a maid or by those seated at table. 
According to the general custom, the hostess serves the 



196 FOOD STUDY 

soup, salad, and dessert ; the host, the meat, fish, and the 
vegetables to be placed on the plate, while other members 
of the family serve the butter and such vegetables as are 
eaten from side dishes. In modern practice the latter 
are eliminated as far as possible, for only vegetables which 
cannot be eaten with a fork are served in separate dishes. 

In the Russian style, serving dishes are not placed on 
the table ; either the portion of food on a plate is placed 
before the individual to be served, or the serving dishes 
are passed in turn to each person and returned to the serv- 
ing table. The latter is the usual formal style of service 
and cannot be carried out without a maid. 

In common practice these two styles are often combined. 
Soup, nowadays, is almost always served in the Russian 
style, whether a maid is present or not. With a maid, the 
vegetables are frequently served in the Russian style, 
while the roast is carved on the table and served in the Eng- 
lish style. In this case, the maid places an empty plate 
before the host and, while he is filling it, she takes another 
plate in her right hand ; then, from the left of the host, 
having taken up the filled plate in her left hand, she puts 
the empty plate in its place. The filled plate is placed 
before the individual for whom it is intended, from his 
right. Then, with another empty plate, the waitress re- 
turns to the left of the host for the next filled plate. Dishes 
from which an individual is to serve himself are, of course, 
passed to the left, and all serving may be carried on from 
that side, but the placing of plates and cups from the right 
is considered the better form. Hot plates and vegetables 
may be held on a folded napkin; a tray is used for 
creamer and sugar bowl, or small dishes of jelly and the 
like, also for silver. 

Strict Russian service requires a plate always before 
each individual except when all are changed for the 



o 

X 



o 

Eh 

H 
M 
(XI 

Ed 



STYLES OF SERVING 197 

dessert. The empty plate is removed with one hand, 
as the filled plate is placed with the other hand. 

Much more thought must be put into the serving when 
no maid is present, for continual rising from the table is 
disturbing to all. A maid can go to the pantry for a for- 
gotten utensil without calling attention\ta4;he oversight, 
but the omission is extremely noticeable if some one must 
rise from the table. Extra care must be taken, then, to 
see that the serving has been thought through in detail 
and that everything which will be needed has been placed 
near at hand. A wheeled tray or serving table beside the 
hostess makes it possible to arrange for many things to be 
within reach without crowding the table. Food must be 
selected which will not spoil by standing from the begin- 
ning of the meal until the appropriate time for serving it. 
If there are children in the family who are capable of doing 
so, it is better to have them remove the courses than to 
have the hostess leave the table. 

It is an art to accomplish the clearing of the table suc- 
cessfully, avoiding noise and the piling of dishes, yet with 
sufficient rapidity. Formal service, which calls for the 
removal of one plate at a time, is often too slow, even when 
a plate is taken in each hand. If plates must be piled, 
remove the plate from the left and, holding it out of sight 
as far away from the table as possible, take up the side 
dishes, one by one, with the other hand, and pile them 
on the plate held in the left hand. It is much better, how- 
ever, to use as few side dishes as possible and to remove 
them on a tray, after the main plates have been carried 
away. After the individual dishes, the serving dishes are 
removed, then any other dishes, salt and pepper holders 
and the like. Crumbs are removed before dessert, either 
with a tray and scraper, or, better, a plate and folded 
napkin. With doilies, the latter method must be used. 



198 FOOD STUDY 

When there is no maid, the removal of crumbs from the 
table may be omitted. 

References 
Allen. "Table Service." 
Books on letter writing. 

Questions 

1. Write a note inviting a friend to dinner (a) informally, (6) 
formally. 

2. Write notes accepting or declining these invitations. 

3. What are the duties of a hostess? 

4. What are the points to be made in training a waitress concern- 
ing her appearance, conduct, and duties ? 



XL 

POULTRY 
Roast Chicken — Fried Chicken 

A. Class Work. Chicken. 

1. Weigh a chicken. Compare with weight after it is 
cleaned and dressed, but not stuffed. 

2. Clean and dress a chicken and truss as for roasting. 
If the head and feet have not been removed, cut 
them off. Remove pin feathers, using a small knife 
and being careful not to break the skin. Turn back 
the skin at the neck so as to cut off the neck close to 
the body, and pull out the windpipe and the crop. 
Starting just below the breastbone, make a lengthwise 
incision just large enough to admit the hand and re- 
move the entrails, gently, so as not to break the gall 
bladder. Save the gizzard, heart, and liver, but dis- 
card the gall bladder. Remove the lungs and the 
kidneys, saving the latter. With a knife remove the 



CHICKEN 199 

oil bag from the tail. Singe the chicken over a flame, 
and wash it inside and out. With a knife sHt the giz- 
zard all around to the inner lining and pull off the 
flesh. Trim the heart. The neck and giblets are 
simmered, and the broth with the meat finely chopped 
is used in making gravy. 
To truss fowl : 

Draw thighs close to body and hold by inserting a 
steel skewer under middle joint, running it through 
the body, coming out under middle joint on 
other side. Cut piece three-fourths inch wide from 
neck skin, and with it fasten legs together at ends ; 
or cross drumsticks, tie securely with a long string 
and fasten to tail. Place the wings close to the body 
and hold them by inserting a second skewer through 
the wing, body, and wing on opposite side. Draw 
the neck skin under back and fasten with a small 
wooden skewer. Turn bird on its breast. Cross 
string attached to tail piece and draw it around each 
end of lower skewer; again cross string and draw 
around each end of upper skewer ; fasten string in a 
knot and cut off ends. In birds that are not stuffed, 
legs are often passed through incisions cut in body 
under bones near tail. 

From the " Boston Cooking-School Cook Book." By 
Fannie M. Farmer. 

3. Instead of roasting the chicken, cut it up and prepare 
as fried chicken. 

If the chicken is tender, sprinkle the pieces with flour 
and salt and saute them in hot fat in a frying pan. 
When brown, lower the heat, cover, and cook slowly 
for a few moments. If meat is tough, parboil until 
tender, then saute, as before, until brown. In this 
case, the broth is used to make the gravy, and the 



200 FOOD STUDY 

flour is browned; in the first way, milk is used as 
the liquid and the flour is not browned. In either 
case, use the fat in which the chicken has been cooked. 

Poultry 

While in its broader sense the term meat includes the 
flesh of all animals, in its narrow sense it includes only 
beef, veal, mutton, lamb, and pork. These are sometimes 
spoken of as " butcher's meat." Poultry is the name given 
to all domestic birds suitable for food. Pigeon and squab, 
together with all birds and animals which are hunted, are 
known as game. 

With modern methods of cold storage and incubator 
hatching, there is no longer much need of considering 
season in connection with chicken. It is always found in 
market. Young chickens weighing about a pound and a 
half are often called broilers. In selecting chicken, it is 
necessary to know the signs of age. The chicken is known 
by its smooth feet and skin, and abundance of pin feathers, 
and the soft cartilage at the end of the breastbone. Long 
hairs and hard, scaly feet are signs of an older bird. A 
good turkey is plump with smooth, dark legs, and also 
shows soft cartilage at the end of the breastbone. Young 
geese, like young chickens, have an abundance of pin 
feathers. 

The United States Department of Agriculture recom- 
mends that poultry be shipped without the removal of 
the entrails. In order to ship for long distances, poultry, 
after killing, must be kept in a temperature of about 32° F. 
While below 30° F. the flesh becomes "frosted", at 35° F. 
it deteriorates too rapidly for good results. It is cus- 
tomary to thaw frozen poultry before it is sold. This 
gives opportunity for deterioration to take place, and it 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF MEAT 201 

would be much better if customers would demand such 
poultry still frozen. 

The Digestibility of Meat 

The fibers in the meat of chicken and turkey are shorter 
than in beef and mutton. This makes them tender. 
The white meat of chicken is especially tender on account 
of the tender fibers and the small amount of connective 
tissue. Not much is really known, however, in regard to 
the comparative digestibility of different kinds of meat. 
Many books quote experiments which have determined the 
length of time meat remains in the stomach. Undoubt- 
edly this time is affected by the toughness, the method of 
cooking, the amount of fat present, and the degree to 
which it has been ground up by the teeth, as well as by the 
kind of meat eaten. It is well proved that much fat 
means that the meat stays a longer time in the stomach. 

Tables have been made from these results, in regard 
to ease and lack of discomfort in digestion, which agree 
pretty well with popular opinions. In general, the rarer 
the meat and the less fat present, the more quickly it passes 
from the stomach. But as little is known regarding intes- 
tinal digestion, this is only part of the story. It has been 
shown, however, that differences in digestibility are not 
at all marked if determined by the test of the total amount 
which is digested and absorbed. Then meat ranks with 
milk and eggs, being from ninety-seven to ninety-eight 
per cent digested and absorbed. As protein in general is 
not more than ninety-five per cent digested and absorbed, 
meat must be ranked as a food that is well utilized and 
fairly rapidly digested. 

Opinions differ as to whether there is any essential 
difference in the amount and kinds of extractives present 



202 FOOD STUDY 

in " light " and " dark ", or in " red " meat. That there are 
slight differences is indicated by the distinctive flavors of 
the different kinds, but that these are sufficient to warrant 
the allowing of some and the exclusion of others from 
the diet under different circumstances, seems hardly war- 
ranted. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 182. "Poultry 
as Food." 

Questions 

1. What kinds of game are found in your local market? When? 

2. Is game brought into market usually cheap? Is rabbit? 

3. Give a table showing seasons when chicken, fowl, tinkey, geese, 
and ducks are best, and give price per pound. 

4. Discuss good methods of preparing a tough bird. 



XLI 

FISH 

Baked Fish — Boiled Fish with Egg Sauce 
Scalloped Fish — Stewed Tomato 

A. Class Work. Prepare Baked Fish. 

Baked Haddock with Stuffing. 

Clean a four-pound haddock, sprinkle with salt inside 
and out, stuff, and sew. Cut five diagonal gashes on 
each side of backbone and insert narrow strips of fat salt 
pork, having gashes on one side come between gashes on 
other side. Shape with skewers in form of letter S, and 
fasten skewers with small twine. Place on greased fish- 



FISH 203 

sheet in a dripping-pan, sprinkle with salt and pepper, 
brush over with melted butter, dredge with flour, and place 
around fish small pieces of fat salt pork. Bake one hour 
in hot oven, basting as soon as fat is tried out, and continue 
basting every ten minutes. 

From the " Boston Cooking-School Cook Book." By 
Fannie M. Farmer. 

B. The Effect of Different Ways of "Boil-, 
ing" Fish. 

Notice in which ways the fish is toughest, and in 
which it is tender, but keeps its shape. What is the 
advantage of the cheesecloth ? Formulate a rule for so- 
called "boiled" fish. 

1. Place a small piece of fish (haddock or halibut cut in 
inch cubes) in a cup of boiling water, and boil rapidly 
for ten minutes. 

2. Place a second piece of fish in a cup of boiling water, 
and simmer for ten minutes. 

3. Repeat (2), but first wrap the fish in cheesecloth. 

4. Repeat (2), but before putting in the fish add three- 
quarters of a teaspoon of vinegar or lemon and quar- 
ter of a teaspoon of salt. 

Serve half of the fish with Qgg sauce. This is a medium 
white sauce made with water as the liquid, twice the usual 
amount of butter, and hard-cooked e^gg, either sliced or 
chopped. The sauce without the egg is known as drawn 
butter. 

Scallop the rest of the fish. Soft bread crumbs may be 
added to the fish to increase the amount. Serve with 
stewed tomato. 

Fish 

The composition of fish is not unlike that of meat. In 
general, it is considered to be a somewhat lighter and less 



204 



FOOD STUDY 



U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A.CTrue: Director 



FVepared by 

CFLANGWORTHY 

Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 



nmD 

Protein 

COD 

Lean Fish 



Fat 



Carbohydrdtes 



Ash 



rmmi 

Water 



^Fuel Value 
is Sa In. Equals 
1000 Calories 




Full value. 
at0r:82.6 in 

325 CALORIES PER POUND 

R-otein:15.8 



Fu£L VALUEi 

U Water: 53.: 

4-10 CALORIES PER POUND 

R-otein:2l. 



OYSTER 



[fat: .4- Wator:86. 
Carbohydrates = 3^. 7, 
Ash:1.2 




Fat:.3 

A5h:£4-. 




FVotein.-e.S 
-Fat:1.2 
Sh: 2.0 



MACKEREL 

Fat Rsh 



SMOKED HERRING 

h^-i/^ Fuel value 

c 

iWaier:34.6 235 calopies per pound Water.- 73 

rotein:36.^ FVotein;l8, 




ruEL VALUE: 



1355 



CALORIES PER POUND 



645 



rUEL VALUE 

n 



CALORIES PER POUND 




at:7.1 
Sh;1.2 



Composition of Fish and Oysters 



FISH 



205 



nourishing food than meat. Here is a comparison of the 
composition of two typical fish with beef. 





Round Beef 
very lean 


Cod Steaks 
edible portion 


Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

Water 


22.6 
2.8 
1.3 

73.6 


18.7 
0.5 
1.2 

79.7 





Round Beep 


Mackerel 




all analyses 


edible portion 


Protein 


20.9 


18.7 


Fat 


10.6 


7.1 


Ash 


1.1 


1.2 


Water 


67.8 


73.4 



As fish contain less extractives and rather less protein also, 
it can well be substituted for meat in the dietaries of 
people who take little exercise. 

Fish may be divided into groups according to the amount 
of fat the flesh contains, cod and whitefish being examples 
of lean fish, while salmon, mackerel, and bluefish are oily. 

Fish spoils so readily that it is even more important to 
know how to select it than how to select meat. It is true 
that the flavor of fish is much better if it can be used as 
soon as caught. Since this is not possible with fish sold in 
market, such fish should be killed as soon as caught, and 
kept on ice. Notice that, in the market, fish exposed for 
sale is sprinkled with chopped ice. To be good, the flesh 
must be firm, not soft and flabby, and eyes and gills must 
be bright. With practice, the sense of smell is a great 
aid in determining freshness. 



206 FOOD STUDY 

The amount of waste in head, bones, and skin is large, 
if fish are bought whole. Hutchison estimates that this 
may amount to seventy per cent as purchased, and even 
be as much as thirty-five per cent in fish as sent to the 
table. These facts must be taken into account in deter- 
mining the actual cost of fish, as well as the real cost of 
canned fish free from waste. As usual with foods, the 
cost is no measure of the food value of the special kinds of 
fish bought. The fat fish are much more nutritious than 
lean fish on account of the fat present. 

If fish have been cleaned at market, they should still be 
wiped inside and out with a damp cloth. Great care must 
be taken of fish after it has been bought. It should be 
kept cold, on ice if possible, but, unless the flesh is pro- 
tected by skin, not directly on the ice itself. It must not 
stand long before being cooked. 

The distinctive taste of fish is due partly to the fat 
present. Since the flavor — except in very oily varieties — 
is never strong, even greater care should be taken in cook- 
ing to preserve the extractives in fish than in meat. At 
least five per cent of the solid matter in fish may be lost in 
boiling. Acid, lemon juice, or vinegar, is often added to 
the water used in boiling fish in order to help coagulate the 
protein, and so keep the flesh white and firm. 

In general, fish is about as digestible as meat, the kinds 
containing less fat digesting with greater ease than the 
more oily varieties. Salt, smoked, and pickled fish are 
all more difficult of digestion than fresh fish. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 85. "Fish as 
Food." 
Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 133. "The Preparation of 
Cod and other Salt Fish for Market." 



OYSTER STEW — FISH CHOWDER 207 



Questions 

1. Give a list of fish which would be classed as rich and oily, and 
of those which could be called dry. Wliich class usually has dark 
flesh ? Which are considered more easily digested ? 

2. Why is pork or butter usually added in baking fish, but not in 
baking meat ? 

3. Find out what fish are commonly sold in your home market. 
Make a table shoAAdng season and price. 

4. Give ways suitable for cooking different kinds of fish. 

5. In boihng a large piece of fish, why would it be convenient to 
put the fish on a plate or rack, and A^Tap up together? Would 
strips of cheese cloth placed across under a fish to be baked help in 
lifting it when done ? 

6. How should a fish be cleaned ? Scaled ? Skinned ? 

7. Consult cook books for sauces and garnishes suitable to serve 
with fish. 

8. Suggest combinations of vegetables which are good with fish. 

9. Suggest ways of serving left-over fish. 



XLII 

OYSTER STEW — FISH CHOWDER 

A. Class Experiment. Cooking Oysters. 

Put an oyster in water and heat slowly to boiling. Ob- 
serve all the changes which take place, and the tempera- 
tures which cause the changes. When are oysters done ? 
What is the best temperature to use in cooking? 

B. Prepare Oyster Stew. 

Clean oysters by pouring a little cold water over them in 
a strainer. Add this water to the oyster liquor and strain 
through cheesecloth to remove any sand present. Feel 
each oyster to be sure no bits of shell remain. Season hot 



208 FOOD STUDY 

milk with salt, pepper, and butter, then add oyster liquor 
and oysters. How long will you cook it after the oysters 
are added? Allow about equal amounts of milk and 
oysters ; and at least half a tablespoon of butter to each 
cup of milk. If thick stew is preferred, rolled crackers are 
sometimes cooked in the milk, or the whole thickened with 
flour. 

C. Prepare Fish Chowder. 

4 lb. cod or haddock 1 tbsp. salt 

6 c. potatoes cut in | inch sHces or | tsp. pepper 

4 c. potatoes cut in f inch cubes 3 tbsp. butter 

1 sHced onion 4 c. scalded milk 

1§ inch cube fat salt pork 8 common crackers 

Order the fish skinned, but head and tail left on. Cut off 
head and tail and remove fish from backbone. Cut fish 
in two-inch pieces and set aside. Put head, tail, and back- 
bone broken in pieces, in stewpan; add two cups cold 
water and bring slowly to boiling point; cook twenty 
minutes. Cut salt pork in small pieces and try out, add 
onion, and fry five minutes ; strain into stewpan. Parboil 
potatoes five minutes in boiling water to cover ; drain, and 
add potatoes to fat ; then add two cups boiling water and 
cook five minutes. Add liquor drained from bones, then 
add the fish ; cover, and simmer ten minutes. Add 
milk, salt, pepper, butter, and crackers split and soaked 
in enough cold milk to moisten. Pilot bread is sometimes 
used in place of common crackers. 

From the " Boston Cooking-School Cook Book." By 
Fannie M. Farmer. 

Oysters 

Oysters, the United States Deputy Commissioner of 
Fisheries tells us, are not only the most extensively eaten 



OYSTERS 209 

of all shellfish, but are also, with a single exception, the 
most valuable economically of all aquatic animals. The 
United States furnishes eighty-eight per cent of the total 
quantity of oysters produced, and has at least 150,000 
men and women engaged in the industry. While all of 
the coast states but one deal in oysters, in fifteen of them 
this is the chief fishery product. However, the greatest 
number of oysters in this country come from Long Island 
Sound, Maryland, Virginia, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, 
and Washington. France produces the crop next largest 
to the LTnited States. Japan and China are also oyster 
producing countries. 

It is easy to see what a demand there must be for oysters. 
This is no doubt partly due to the fact that they are easily 
digested, but it is probably also because they can be used 
to furnish considerable variety to the diet, since they lend 
themselves to so many ways of preparation. They are 
almost universally used, appearing on the menus of the 
most exclusive as well as the cheapest restaurants. 

Langworthy gives the following composition for oysters : 

Water 88.3 per cent 

Nitrogenous substances 6.1 per cent 

Fat 1.4 per cent 

Carbohydrates 3.3 per cent 

Salts 1.9 per cent 

The total solids are about equal in amount to those of 
milk, but a quart of shucked oysters costs from four to five 
times as much as a quart of milk. Oysters, like milk, are 
bulky for the amount of nourishment which they contain. 
The nitrogen present is probably not all in the form of pro- 
tein ; the carbohydrate is largely the glycogen stored in the 
liver of the animal. Milk and oysters are the two animal 
foods which are exceptional in furnishing large amounts 



210 FOOD STUDY 

of carbohydrate, although not in the same form. Eaten 
raw, oysters are an unusually digestible food ; even cooked, 
they are still easily digested, although they are less so 
when fried than when cooked in any other way. 

Long ago the demand for oysters outran the natural 
supply and oyster culture became an industry. Italy 
began their cultivation about a hundred years before the 
Christian era, and within the last century even those 
places where oysters were naturally most abundant have 
been forced to cultivate them. In order to understand 
what oyster farming means one must know something of 
the habits of the oyster. An oyster produces an incredible 
number of eggs, apparently to compensate for the fact 
that in natural life the percentage of those that will find 
suitable conditions for development is very small. Oyster 
farming consists in the preservation of as many of these 
eggs as possible. The newly-born young is not more than 
one one-hundred-and-fiftieth of an inch long, nearly trans- 
parent, has no shell, and swims freely. By the time it is 
large enough to be visible to the naked eye it can no longer 
move around. To survive, during the swimming period it 
must not only escape being eaten by adult oysters, fish, 
and other shellfish, but it must find a suitable place in 
which to develop. If it sinks on a muddy, soft sandy, or 
slimy bottom it cannot live. If, however, it attaches 
itself to clean shells it has a chance to survive. But the 
oyster has many enemies against which even the hard 
shell that surrounds it does not afford perfect protection. 
Certain mollusks drill minute holes through the shell and 
so get at the oyster's body, starfish may force the shell 
open and devour the contents, or it may be attacked by 
certain kinds of fish with jaws powerful enough to crush 
the shells ; or barnacles, sponges, or mussels may grow so 
thickly on the shells as to cut off food and oxygen. Oyster 



OYSTERS 211 

culture consists mainly in providing suitable beds of shells 
for the young oysters and In protecting them from as 
many of their enemies as possible. Palisades are some- 
times erected around the beds to keep off the large fish. 

When ready for market, the oysters are dredged, freed 
from dirt and attached shells, and sorted according to size. 
Three sizes are usually recognized. The smallest, called 
"half shells", are usually eaten raw, the middle-sized, 
sometimes called "culls", are for general use, while the 
largest or "box" oysters are selected for frying. The 
difference in size is mainly a question of age, for, while 
there are many varieties of oysters, there is not much vari- 
ation in size between the varieties. One peculiarity of 
the oyster is that it remains just as tender when old as it 
was when young. The fact that it takes no exercise may 
explain this. The names Blue Point, Rockaway, and 
the like, which used to indicate the locality from which 
the oyster came, now usually mean no more than size. 
For example, many small oysters are called Blue Points. 

Oysters stand shipping well. If left in the shell, kept 
cool, and sprinkled occasionally with brackish water, they 
will live for weeks without any deterioration. Even 
when "shucked". If kept cool, they remain edible for eight 
to ten days, but they keep best if removed from the oyster 
liquor. Shucked oysters are usually washed carefully In a 
number of waters, and packed In air-tight receptacles sur- 
rounded by Ice. Care must be taken not to let them be- 
come frozen. Formerly, they were shipped floated in a 
tub with a cake of Ice. The objections to this practice 
were twofold. The ice often had to be replaced during 
the shipping, with the consequent danger of infection. 
Secondly, oysters lose salts and much flavor If soaked in 
fresh water, although they gain in size from the absorp- 
tion of water. Consequently many states require the 



212 FOOD STUDY 

other method of shipment and specify that the oysters 
sold shall not contain more than ninety per cent water. 
Because they take up fresh water, oysters are sometimes 
"fattened" by placing them in the fresh water at the 
mouth of rivers. It is most necessary that such beds shall 
not be in water contaminated by sewage, lest the raw 
oyster become a carrier of typhoid germs, but, even at 
best, there seems to be no reason for allowing the practice. 

The notion that oysters cannot be eaten during the 
months which contain no "r" in their names. May, June, 
July, and August, has no real foundation except that they 
are more liable to be contaminated by the bacteria in the 
water when it is warm. Oysters are not good when they 
are spawning, but this requires only from three to four 
weeks and takes place in different species at different 
seasons. Of course, if not properly kept cool, oysters 
spoil more quickly in hot than in cold weather. 

Oysters occasionally appear unusually green. This is 
sometimes due merely to certain seaweeds or diatoms on 
which they have been feeding, and does not in any way 
impair the oyster as an edible product. Only rarely is it 
due to copper, and probably never in amounts sufficient to 
prove injurious. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 85. "Fish as 

Food." 
National Geographical Magazine, Vol. 24 (1913), pp. 257-281. 

Smith. "Oysters; the World's Most Valuable Water Crop." 

Questions 

1. Compare the cost of oyster stew and a cream vegetable soup. 

2. Compare the cost and taste of fish chowder made at home with a 
canned chowder of good brand. 

3. Should the crabs frequently found in oysters be used ? 



REVIEW LESSON 213 

4. Are oysters which are greenish good to eat ? 

5. In what months are oysters not used, and why ? 

6. If fresh lobsters and clams are obtainable in your market, 
compare the cost of these with oysters. If not, compare the cost of 
canned lobsters and clams. 

7. Are shellfish expensive forms of nutriment ? 



XLIII 

REVIEW LESSON 

Dinner 

Tomato Soup 

Jellied Prunes 
Prepare and Serve a Dinner. 
Suggested menu : 

Soup — Tomato. 

Meat — Baked fish, with any suitable sauce. 

Vegetables — Buttered beets. 

Stuffed potatoes. 
Salad — Lettuce with French dressing. 
Dessert — Jellied prunes. 

Tomato Soup. 

Cook a can of tomatoes with a pint of water, a tablespoon 
of chopped onion, and three or four cloves, until the toma- 
toes are soft. Strain and thicken. Season to taste. 

Jellied Prunes. 

^ lb. prunes ^ box gelatine or 

2 c. cold water 2| tbsp. granulated gelatine 

Boiling water 1 c. sugar 

^ c. cold water | c. lemon juice. 



214 FOOD STUDY 

Pick over, wash, and soak prunes for several hours in 
two cups of cold water ; cook in same water until soft ; 
remove prunes; stone, and cut in quarters. To prune 
water add enough boiling water to make two cups. Soak 
gelatine in half cup cold water, dissolve in hot liquid, add 
sugar, lemon juice, then strain, add prunes, mold, and 
chill. Stir twice while cooling to prevent prunes from 
settling. Serve with sugar and cream. 

From the " Boston Cooking-School Cook Book.'* By 
Fannie M. Farmer. 

The Dining Room 

The American woman has been accused in the past of 
great lack of taste in the furnishing and decoration of her 
house, although being second only to the French woman 
in her knowledge of how to dress. Fortunately, however, 
matters have been improving greatly in this respect, per- 
haps because the woman is beginning to understand that, 
while fashion complicates the problem, there really are 
fundamental laws to guide her. Honesty, simplicity, and 
use are the touchstones, and it is amusing that it is the 
artists, who have always been considered impractical in 
matters of everyday life, who are insisting that usefulness 
is the first test. 

First, a thing should look like the thing it really is 
and not like something else. A salt shaker should look 
like a salt shaker and not be an owl with holes in its 
head. A pillow on a couch should be made to be a 
pillow, not ruffled or beaded, nor of some material which 
would either be easily spoiled or uncomfortable to use. 
Suitability, also, is being considered. The era of hang- 
ing gilded rolling pins with hooks across them for key 
holders, or gilded toasters for magazine racks has gone 



THE DINING ROOM 215 

by. But man is still under the influence of the notion 
that we must have multitudes of things around us. Let 
us rather test every object in a room and decide if it is 
really useful or if it is really beautiful, and discard the rest. 
Let each object be as beautiful as possible. The use of 
ornament is shown everywhere about us, but much of the 
so-called ornament is meaningless, interferes with use, or 
greatly increases work. This is unsuitability. 

With this in mind, it is easy to formulate the needs of 
the dining room. First, it must be a place not only really 
clean, but one that allows no suspicion in the matter. A 
well-lighted room with light colors is required rather 
than a dark one which might conceal dirt. Few objects 
should be around. Too many suggest subconsciously to 
the mind that since it is much work to dust, dust has prob- 
ably been allowed to accumulate. The air must be fresh ; 
no stale odors of food are welcome. Therefore, heavy 
materials to which odors cling are unsuitable for draperies 
or upholstering. Carpets are excluded, and rugs are ad- 
mitted only because they deaden noise. Moreover, as 
one likes to be sure nothing has been spilled on the chair, 
evidently leather or cane seating is to be chosen instead of 
stuffed furniture. The height of table and chairs should 
be carefully adjusted for comfort. Chairs that are so 
high that the average person cannot touch the floor while 
sitting in them are disagreeable. Again, children often 
are seated at table so that their chins barely appear, or 
they are placed so high that they are sitting almost on a 
level with the table itself, and are reproved for spilling. 

Since undoubtedly our state of mind affects our diges- 
tions, colors must be restful and harmonious, and the room 
must be light and cheerful. On the sideboard or table 
may be placed utensils which are appropriate and beauti- 
ful. But remember that it is almost impossible to have 



216 



FOOD STUDY 



too few articles around, for things accumulate almost 
faster than they can be cared for; and that it is, con- 
sequently, very, very easy to have too many. 

References 

Pictures and articles on Dining Rooms in such magazines as "The 
House Beautiful," or in books on House Furnishing. 

Questions 

1. Calculate the cost per person of the dinner served and compare 
it with the following dinner : 

Main course — Fish chowder. 

Bread and butter. 
Dessert — German toast with a pudding sauce. 

2. Make a list of dishes, glass, silver, linen, and the like, which you 
would consider a moderate equipment for a dining room, and find 
out about what the cost would be. 

3. Describe a dining room which you consider suitably furnished. 

4. How would you rank a dining room, as a public, semi-public, or 
private room? What influence should this have on the choice of 
pictures for the room ? 

XLIV 

POP-OVERS 

A. Prepare Pop-overs. 

Use one-fourth of the following proportions : 



Liquid 
(Milk) 


Flour 

(Bread flour 

sifted) 


Egg 


Fat 
(Butter) 


Salt 


Ic. 


1 C. 


1 


1 tsp. 


^ tsp. 



FLOUR MIXTURES 217 

Mix as follows : 

1. Beat white and yolk separately. Add the milk to 
the beaten yolk and add to the flour and salt. Stir 
in the melted butter and finally fold in the beaten 
white. 

2. Add the milk to the flour and salt. Add unbeaten 
egg and melted butter and beat with a Dover egg 
beater until there are no lumps. 

Pour each pop-over batter into hot, buttered, earthen 
molds or iron muffin pans, but do not fill molds more than 
quarter full. Bake in a hot oven ^ (482"^ F.) until the 
pop-overs are puffed and beginning to brown, then reduce 
the heat and finish baking. Allow thirty to thirty-five 
minutes for the whole baking. Compare results. 

B. Class Experiments. 1. Fill a cup with unsifted 
flour. Sift the flour and refill the cup, being 
careful not to pack the flour. Recipes always 
call for flour measured after one sifting. Why ? 
2. Drop a teaspoon of unbeaten white of egg into 
hot fat. What immediately happens to the 
water in the white of egg^ WTiat makes pop- 
overs pop ? Why is so hot an oven used ? 

Flour Mixtures 

Cream soup and white sauce are made with compara- 
tively little flour for the liquid used, and without the use 
of eggs. Beginning with pop-overs come a series of thick- 
ened mixtures, usually with more or less egg. Of these 
the more liquid are termed batters. A mixture thin 

iTest the heat of the oven at 482° F. with your hand. An 
" educated " hand is of the greatest help when trying to bake with- 
out a thermometer. Also test by putting a piece of white paper 
in the oven for five minutes. 



218 FOOD STUDY 

enough to pour is called a "pour-batter"; it is about as 
thick as thin cream. Then comes a "drop-batter", 
thicker than a pour -batter but still liquid enough to drop 
from a spoon, "breaking" when it is poured. It has 
the consistency of thick cream. Thicker than this is 
"soft dough" ; then, still thicker, is "dough." Obviously 
pop-overs are a pour-batter ; so are griddle-cakes. Muffins 
are drop-batter, baking-powder biscuits are soft dough, and 
bread is dough. Cookies and pastry are still stiffer mix- 
tures. But none of these terms are exact, because the 
proportions of flour and liquid in any one may vary a good 
deal. Also, it will readily be seen that eggs act as a liquid 
until they are cooked, and that fat is liquid while it is 
melted. All these things, therefore, must be taken into 
consideration. Then, one flour differs from another in its 
gluten content, so, therefore, in the amount of liquid it 
can absorb. But in spite of all this, quite accurate results 
can be obtained with definite proportions, until one comes 
to a mixture like bread which must be handled. 

In considering the whole question of proportions, think 
of the liquid as fixed in amount, one cup, and then the 
proportion of flour used with it. In pop-overs equal 
amounts are used, one cup of each. Therefore, pop-over 
batter is said to be 1:1, — one cup of liquid to one cup 
of flour. As griddle-cakes, fritter-batter, muffins, and 
bread vary mainly in the amount of flour used, this is an 
easy way to remember proportions. Cake ordinarily 
contains so much fat or so many eggs that these must be 
taken into consideration in counting liquid. 

The method of mixing depends upon the leavening agent 
and the result to be accomplished. If the leavening is 
steam, as in pop-overs, beating in air is evidently unneces- 
sary. Therefore the separate beating of the egg, folding in 
the white, gives no better pop-overs than are obtained by 



FLOUR MIXTURES 219 

the shorter method. Beating the flour with the liquid 
develops the gluten in it, which is necessary to retain the 
steam which expands and so makes the pop-overs hollow. 
Notice in each mixture exactly how you combine the in- 
gredients and see the reasons in every case. 

Baking is much easier if a thermometer can be used in 
the oven, because then the temperature can readily be 
measured and not guessed at. Many home ovens can 
quite easily have a hole bored, so that a thermometer can 
be inserted. The result is more accurate than the results 
obtained from oven thermometers. With gas ovens, it is 
possible to tell with a little practice how hot a given oven 
is by the length of time the gas has been lighted and the 
degree to which it is turned on. Many ovens bake un- 
evenly. This is especially liable to be true of small ovens. 
In these, care must be taken not to put pans too near the 
sides. It is impossible to fill such an oven too full and 
get good results. A pan of water will help cool an oven ; 
an asbestos mat placed under a pan will keep the bottom 
from baking as fast ; paper put over the top will keep the 
top from browning as rapidly. But all these ought to be 
unnecessary with a good oven and sufficient skill in baking. 

Questions 

1. Is pour-batter an appropriate name for batters of the type of 
pop)-overs ? 

2. Look up a recipe for cream puffs. Cream cakes. Eclairs. 
How do these compare in proportions with the pop-over recipe ? 

3. If you mixed cream puffs as pop-overs and attempted to bake 
them on a flat surface what would happen ? Account, then, for the 
partial cooking of the flour during the mixing. 

4. Compare the proportions of flour to liquid in cream soups, 
white sauces, and pop-overs. Also with the amount of flour you 
would have to substitute for cornstarch to make a mold. Compare 
the textures when cooked. 



220 FOOD STUDY 

XLV 
APPLE FRITTERS 

A. Class Experiments. ' The Principle of Leaven- 

ing. 

1. Tie a piece of rubber sheeting over the top 
of a test tube, cool the tube, then heat it 
sUghtly. Notice the effects on the rubber. 
What effect has heat and cold upon the volume 
of the air in the tube ? 

2. How is the gas held in the dough ? 

Mix one teaspoon of flour with an equal amount 
of water. Repeat, using cornstarch instead of 
flour. Notice the difference in the result. To 
explain : mix J c. flour with water (a teaspoon 
at a time) to make a very stiff dough. Wash, by 
kneading it gently in a bowl of cold water until 
the part left, the gluten, no longer gives a blue 
color with iodine. (What has been washed out ?) 

a. Reserve a pinch of the gluten, divide the 
rest into two balls. Bake one in a hot 
oven, the other in a slow oven. Explain 
difference in results. 

b. With the piece reserved, determine if 
gluten is protein. 

B, Apple Fritters. 

Prepare a pop-over batter, using i c. liquid. Pare 
and core an apple and cut crossways into slices. Dip a 
slice into the batter. Is it thick enough to make a cover 
for the apple? Add enough flour to make a "cover- 
batter." Record proportions one would need for a cup of 
liquid. Fry in deep fat and serve with syrup. 



LEAVENING 221' 

Leavening 

The term leavening means "making lighter." Bread 
is leavened and, instead of being a solid, heavy mass, 
is spongy, light, and porous. The process is supposed 
to improve not only the flavor but the digestibility of the 
mass. 

The principle of all leavening is the expansion by heat of 
some gas which is thoroughly mixed through the batter or 
dough. In cooking, there are three agents which are com- 
monly used in leavening doughs. The first of these is 
water vapor or steam. This, as in the pop-overs, is manu- 
factured from the water present in the batter by the heat 
of the oven. Then further heat expands the steam still 
more. At the same time the heat hardens the expanded 
gluten, so that after a while no further stretching, is pos- 
sible. This explains why mufiins and cake rise in the 
oven only at the beginning of the baking. 

The second agent is air. This is mixed in a batter in 
two ways, — it may be entangled in the batter itself by 
beating rapidly, or it may be beaten into egg and then 
folded into the batter. Even snow may be folded in like 
egg and introduce some air into the mixture. When the 
batter full of tiny bubbles of air is heated, this air expands 
and, stretching the gluten by which it is held, it makes 
larger holes, thus leavening all the mass and making it 
rise. 

Carbon dioxide is the third agent. This may be 
forced into the dough, a process, however, which is never 
used at home and rarely elsewhere. Carbon dioxide is, 
instead, manufactured in the dough itself. When yeast is 
put into bread, one is really starting a plant to grow. The 
plant feeds mainly on sugar. If cane sugar is present, it 
turns it first into glucose and fructose sugars and then 



222 FOOD STUDY 

breaks them up into carbon dioxide and alcohol. The 
heat of the oven acts on carbon dioxide exactly as it does 
on water vapor or steam, expanding it into larger bubbles. 
As alcohol is more .easily turned into vapor than is water, 
it becomes a gas and, expanding, helps in the leavening 
process. 

The other method of introducing carbon dioxide into 
doughs and batters will be shown in the next lesson. 

Questions 

1. What effect has heat on gluten? 

2. What other proteins are hardened by heat ? 

3. After pop-overs are thoroughly baked, as they cool, what 
becomes of the steam ? Why are they better eaten hot ? Compare 
them to baked potatoes in this respect. 

4. Why does an insufficiently cooked pop-over fall, when it is 
taken out of the oven ? 

5. Calculate the cost of pop-overs. How do they compare with the 
cost of the bread that they would replace in a meal ? 



XLVI 
SOUR MILK GRIDDLECAKES 

A, Class Experiments. Soda as a Leavening Agent. 

L To find out why soda makes cakes light. 

Add a teaspoon of vinegar to a pinch of soda in a 
test tube. Tip the tube and hold the mouth 
of this test tube just above another containing a 
teaspoon of lime water. After a moment, cover 
the mouth of the lime-water tube and shake it. 
What is present? What caused the bubbles in 
the first tube ? 



SOUR MILK GRIDDLECAKES 223 

2. What kind of substances must be put with soda 
to produce this gas ? 

a. Dip a piece of blue litmus paper into vine- 
gar and note the effect on the paper. Hold 
it in the fumes of ammonia, an alkaline sub- 
stance, and see the result. 

b. Now test the following and determine 
whether they are acid, alkaline, or neutral 
(neither acid nor alkaline) : 

1 — water. 

2 — sour mUk. 

3 — sweet milk. 

4 — molasses and water. 

5 — cream of tartar dissolved in hot water. 

6 — thin starch paste. 

7 — soda and water. 

c. Pour a few drops of soda and water into 
each of the tubes. Which cause effer- 
vescence ? 

3. Will bubbles of gas go on forming indefinitely ? 
To a little soda and water add, successively, 
small amounts of vinegar. Do bubbles con- 
tinue to form? Has all the gas in the soda 
been set free? Has soda an agreeable taste? 
What would be the difficulty, if there were more 
soda in bread or cake than the acid present 
could act on? 

4. How much soda can be used with a given amount 
of acid ? 

Dissolve a teaspoon of soda in quarter of a cup 
of water in a measuring cup. Then dilute half 
a cup of thick sour milk with about half a cup 
of water. Add, slowly, the soda solution to the 



224 



FOOD STUDY 



sour milk until it is neutral to both red and blue 
litmus paper. 

Calculate the amount of soda to use with one 
cup of sour milk. 

B. Prepare Sour Milk Griddlecakes 
Use one-fourth of the following proportions : 





Liquid 
(Thick, sour milk) 


Flour 


Egg 


Fat 
(Melted butter) 


Salt 


Soda 


Ic. 


1 to li c. 


1 


1 tbsp. 


1 tsp. 


? 





How will you combine the ingredients? Cook by drop- 
ping spoonfuls of the batter on a griddle or frying pan, 
using enough fat to keep the cakes from sticking. A 
soapstone griddle should not be greased. When the cake 
is full of bubbles and the under side is brown, turn the 
cakes over, using a spatula or a cake turner, and brown 
the other side also. 

Soda 

Soda has two chemical names : bicarbonate of soda, and 
acid sodium carbonate. In spite of the latter name, soda 
is alkaline to litmus and not acid in any of its properties. 
It is manufactured from common salt by a number of 
different processes. 

Our grandmothers used saleratus in place of soda. This 
is bicarbonate of potash and, like soda, gives off carbon 
dioxide when it is combined with an acid. As this was 
originally manufactured it was not finely powdered, but 
in a more or less scaly mass which could by no means have 
been easily sifted with the flour in making use of it. In 
order, then, to get it properly mixed, it was necessary to 



SODA 225 

dissolve it in the liquid used. This probably accounts for 
the many cooks who still dissolve the soda in the sour milk 
used with it, instead of sifting it with the flour. This 
is, obviously, a waste of soda, because all the gas which 
bubbles off is lost as leavening, since there is no gluten 
present to retain the gas. 

Since definite amounts of acid act on definite amounts of 
soda, a question naturally arises in regard to the acidity 
of sour milk. Is it always uniformly acid? This must 
be answered in the negative for milk that has not clabbered. 
But after that stage has been reached, the acidity remains 
fairly constant, until changes take place in the milk which 
render it unfit for food. Therefore, the proportion of soda 
that can wisely be used with a cup of clabbered milk is a 
definite one. Many recipes, especially when enough other 
flavoring, such as chocolate or spice, is used to disguise the 
taste of an excess, call for a larger proportion of soda. The 
result is greatly improved if the soda is reduced to the cor- 
rect amount, and if more leavening is needed the added 
amount is supplied by the addition of baking powder. 

Great caution must be taken when molasses is used to 
act as the acid with soda. Modern molasses is entirely 
different in respect to its acidity, being always much less 
acid than of old. It is safer to allow not more than a 
quarter of a teaspoon of soda to a cup of molasses, if the 
molasses is bought in bulk. Use baking powder for the 
rest of the leavening. If the molasses is canned, it may 
have practically no acidity whatever, and baking powder 
should be used instead of any soda. 

Questions 

1. How does baking soda differ from wasliing soda? 

2. What finally becomes of the carbon dioxide gas from the soda 
used in griddle-cakes ? 



226 FOOD STUDY 

3. Is carbon dioxide harmful ? 

4. What is soda water ? How is it made ? 

5. Wherein hes the chief danger of drinking soda water at a public 
store if it is managed carelessly ? Are there any laws in your town 
or city governing this ? 

6. Why is soda soothing to a burn ? When should it not be used 
for this purpose ? 

XLVII 

LEAVENING 

Sweet Milk Griddlecakes 
Sponge Cake 

A. Class Experiment. Baking Powder. 

1. Mix a little soda and cream of tartar. Does any- 
thing happen? Add water. What test with 
litmus paper was given by cream of tartar and 
water ? 

2. Pour a tablespoon of water on half a teaspoon 
of baking powder. Is gas given off? From 
this experiment what two substances do you 
suppose that baking powder contains? 

3. Boil (2). When cool, add iodine. What third 
substance does this show is present? 

4. Why starch is used. 

Stir together half a teaspoon of starch and half a 
teaspoon of water. What becomes of the water ? 
What happens if the soda and acid in baking 
powder becomes moist ? Why is starch added ? 

5. Weigh out one ounce of soda and two and a 
quarter ounces of cream of tartar. Add half 
an ounce of starch. Mix thoroughly and sift. 
Compare the cost of this with the cost of an 



GRIDDLECAKES — SPONGE CAKE 



227 



equal Weight of purchased cream of tartar bak- 
ing powder. 

B. Prepare Sweet Milk Griddlecakes 
Use one-fourth of the following proportions : 



Liquid 
(milk) 


Flour 


Egg 


Fat 


Salt 


Baking Powder 


1 C. 


? 


1 


1 tbsp. 


1 tsp. 


? 



The usual amount of baking powder is two teaspoons to 
a cup of flour. How does the amount of soda used in the 
sour milk griddlecake recipe compare with the amount of 
baking powder used here ? 

C. Prepare Sponge Cake. 

Use one-sixth of the following recipe. Bake in an 
oven at 338° F. 

*Yolks 6 eggs Grated rind one-half lemon 

1 c. sugar * Whites 6 eggs 

1 tbsp. lemon juice 1 e. flour (pastry) 

\ tsp. salt 

Beat yolks until thick and lemon-colored, add sugar 
gradually, and continue beating, using Dover egg-beater. 
Add lemon juice, rind, and whites of eggs beaten until stiff 
and dry. When whites are partially mixed with yolks, 
remove beater, and carefully cut and fold in flour mixed 
and sifted with salt. Bake one hour in a slow oven, in 
an angel-cake pan or deep narrow pan. 

From the " Boston Cooking-School Cook Book." By 
Fannie M. Farmer. 



* The eggs in this recipe may be reduced to four with good 
results. 



228 FOOD STUDY 



Baking Powders 



While baking powders are now practically all made with 
soda as the carbonate, many different substances are used 
for acid. There are three distinct types of powders, classi- 
fied according to their composition. The oldest type is 
made with cream of tartar. This is a substance which is 
found abundantly in grape juice. If grape juice stands in 
wooden kegs, cream of tartar crystallizes out in masses 
on the inside. This crude substance, argol as it is called, 
is then purified by being dissolved in water, filtered, often 
through bone black, so as to remove the coloring matter 
of the grapes, and then re-crystallized and ground. It 
makes a good baking powder, because it is not easily sol- 
uble in water and does not need much "filler" to keep it 
dry. When it acts with the soda, besides the carbon 
dioxide another substance, known as Rochelle salts, is 
formed. This substance is used as a purgative in medi- 
cine, but so little of it results from the amount of baking 
powder ordinarily used in cooking that probably it has 
little effect on the human system. 

Phosphate powders, a second type of baking powder, 
are usually made with acid calcium phosphate. These 
powders give a good deal of gas, but the gas is evolved 
very quickly. More filler is used because of this. The 
residue, like that of the tartrate powders, is also purga- 
tive, but probably no action is caused from the amount 
usually eaten. 

The third class, alum powders, contains most com- 
monly potash alum, that is, potassium aluminum sul- 
phate, and, since alum is very soluble, even more filler is 
used than in the phosphate powders. In these powders 
the evolution of gas is much more continuous than in 
the phosphate types. Much objection has been made 



BAKING POWDERS 229 

to these powders, because it was feared there might be 
injurious effects from the alum used. Repeated ex- 
periments do not seem, however, to show that the resi- 
dues here are any more harmful than in the other cases. 
Manufacturers of tartrate powders have done their best 
to prove alum powders injurious because, as alum is much 
less expensive than cream of tartar, these last powders are 
naturally much cheaper. 

Besides these three distinct types, there are mixed 
powders in which more than one acid is used. Alum is 
sometimes mixed with the phosphate powders to make 
the evolution of gas more continuous. Tartaric acid it- 
self often takes the place of a part of the cream of tartar 
in a tartrate powder. Probably the truth of the matter 
is that too much of them is not good for digestion, but that, 
as ordinarily used, they are all harmless. Nor do we 
ordinarily make much account of the difference in in- 
gredients in our actual use of baking powders. 

Sometimes, instead of baking powder, cream of tartar 
and soda are used. For one teaspoon of soda two slightly 
rounded teaspoons of cream of tartar are allowed. This 
does not give such good results as are obtained with 
purchased baking powders, because the measuring of the 
soda and acid is not nearly so accurate, nor is the mixing 
so thorough. Some recipes for home-made powders call 
for as many as a dozen siftings and are, therefore, rather 
laborious to make. 

Since over two parts of cream of tartar are used for one 
of soda, and since in tartrate baking powder there is also 
some filler present, ranging from seven to about twenty 
per cent, it will be seen that only about one-fourth of the 
baking powder is soda. If, therefore, we wish to substitute 
baking powder and sweet milk for soda and sour milk, about 
four times as much baking powder as soda must be used. 



230 



FOOD STUDY 



Questions 

1. Find out the cost per pound of baking powders of the different 
types found on your market. 

2. What are the regulations in regard to baking powders for sale in 
interstate commmerce ? 

3. Have you state or city regulations in regard to baking powders ? 

4. Correct the following recipe for sour-milk gingerbread by cal- 
culating the amount of soda to use with this amount of molasses, 
and with the amount of sour milk. Subtract the sum from the 
amount of soda given in the recipe. What is the amount of the extra 
soda ? How much baking powder will you add to replace the extra 
amount ? 



1 c. molasses 


If tsp. soda 


1 c. sour milk 


2 tsp. ginger 


2^ c. flour 


1 tsp. salt 



5. What is the leavening in sponge cake? Why does it need a 
cooler oven than ordinary cake ? 



XLVIII 

MUFFINS 

A. Prepake Muffins. 

Use one-fourth of one of the following proportions : 





Liquid 
(Milk) 


Flour 


Egq 


Fat 
(Butter) 


Sugar 


Salt 


Baking 
Powder 


1. 


1 c. 


2c. 


1 


1 


1 tbsp. 


i tsp. 


? 


2. 


1 c. 


2 c. 


1 


2 


1 tbsp. 


h tsp. 


? 


3. 


1 c. 


2 c. 


1 


2 


2 tbsp. 


h tsp. 


? 



What is the effect of fat as shown in (1) and (2) ? 
sugar as shown by (2) and (3) ? 



Of 



KINDS OF FLOUR 231 

B. Class Experiment. Weight of Flours. 

Weigh a cup of each of the following : 

1. Bread flour sifted once. 

2. Whole wheat or graham flour. (Sift, but replace 
the bran.) 

3. Corn meal. 

4. Rye flour. 

C. Prepare Muffins. Follow the proportion given 
in (A 2), but use only one-half of the amount of flour. Use 
a weight of one of the other flours equal to the weight of 
the omitted flour. 



Kinds of Flour 

More than one kind of flour is manufactured from wheat. 
The preparation of bread flour has already been described, 
and it will be remembered that in its manufacture all of 
the bran coatings are removed. When none of these out- 
side layers is removed, but all are ground up together, true 
graham flour is produced. This flour was named after 
an American physician, Dr. Sylvester Graham, who in- 
vented the process. He advocated this, because of the 
supposed wastefulness of throwing away so much nutri- 
ment as chemical analysis showed remained in the dis- 
carded bran. Later, it was discovered that this nutriment, 
largely protein, was most abundant in the aleurone or 
inner layer of the bran. Therefore, it was argued, the 
outer coats could be discarded and only the inner layer 
ground with the kernel, producing a flour which would 
be less coarse, but would preserve the whole nutriment 
of the wheat. Accordingly, this received the somewhat 
misleading name of whole wheat flour, a name which would 
really much more accurately describe graham flour. For 



232 FOOD STUDY 

a while after this flour was put on the market, much was 
to be heard about the superior nutritive value of whole 
wheat bread, compared with bread made from white flour. 
Later work has shown that the cells containing the protein 
in the aleurone layer are so tough that few of them are 
broken in the grinding, and so the protein present is not 
digested easily. Moreover, the whole mass passes so 
much more rapidly through the digestive tract that ex- 
periment shows that rather less nutriment is actually 
absorbed from bread made from the coarser varieties of 
flour. These breads may have their place in the diet, 
however, because they contain more salts, and it is prob- 
ably due to these that they possess their laxative effect. 

Rye is the only flour besides wheat flour which contains 
sufficient gluten to make risen bread, and rye bread is 
much more moist and dense than white bread. Nearly 
all recipes, even for graham and whole wheat breads, call 
for the addition of some bread flour. In making corn- 
meal muffins, for example, from one-third to two-thirds of 
the flour as given in an ordinary recipe for muffins may be 
substituted with an equal weight of corn meal. The more 
flour used in proportion to the corn meal, the lighter the 
muffins, but, of course, there is also less and less flavor 
of corn meal. 

Corn meal is made from different varieties of corn giving 
a white or a yellow meal. Southerners generally use white 
corn meal, and northerners yellow, each claiming a superi- 
ority for their product. There is an undoubted difference 
in flavor, but which is better is a matter of taste each 
individual must settle for himself. 

Questions 

1. Describe the wheat kernel. 

2. How many pounds are there in a barrel of flour ? 



CAKE 



233 



3. What does flour cost per pound ? Per barrel ? 

4. Is there any advantage in buying a barrel of flour instead of a 
quarter-barrel sack? 

5. What care should be taken in storing flour ? 

6. How does the nutritive value of a pound of flour compare with 
that of a pound of cornstarch? Of corn meal? Of beef (the 
round) ? Compare the cost of a hundred-calorie portion of each, as 
well as the cost per pound. 

7. How many mufiins of average size can you make from two 
cups of flour ? 



XLIX 
CAKE 

A. Make a Plain Cake. 

Use one-eighth of the following proportions 



Liquid 
(Milk or water) 


Flour 
(Pastry) 


Fat 
(Butter) 


Sugar 


Eggs 


Baking Powder 


1 C. 


3c. 


|c. 


He. 


4 


3 tsp. 



Add a few grains of salt and a few drops of flavoring. 

Half the class mix as in (1), the other half as in (2). 
Compare the appearance of batters before baking and of 
cakes after baking. Which method of mixing takes less 
time? Bake cake at 385° F, in greased pans only two- 
thirds full, until it shrinks away from the sides of the pan 
and springs back into place when gently pressed on top 
with the finger. 

1. Cream the butter, adding the sugar gradually, until 
the two are as well mixed as possible. Add the 
beaten yolks of eggs, and then alternately liquid and 



234 



FOOD STUDY 



flour sifted with the baking powder. Finally, fold 
in the stiffly beaten whites. 
2. Put the sugar in a bowl and pour in the liquid. Stir 
and let stand, while you separate and beat the eggs. 
Add the beaten yolks and the butter melted. Gradu- 
ally stir in the flour sifted with the baking powder 
and finally fold in the stiffly beaten whites as before. 

B. Frosting. 

Frost cake with uncooked frosting, I or II, using 
one-fourth the amounts. 



I 




II 


Without egg 


With egg 


1 c. powdered sugar 


1 c. powdered sugar 




water 


1 egg white 




milk 


1 tsp. flavoring 


2 tbsp. liquid < 


cream 






orange juice 


Beat with a spoon till mix- 




etc. 


ture begins to thicken. 


1 tbsp. lemon , 


iuice 





C. Class Experiment. 

Bread Flour and Pastry Flour. 

1. Compare bread flour and pastry flour: 

a. Color. 

b. Feehng. 

c. Packing in hand when pressed. 

2. Weigh a cup of pastry flour (sifted once). Com- 
pare with the weight of a cup of bread flour de- 
termined in the last lesson. How much bread 
flour is equal in weight to a cup of pastry flour ? 

3. Fill a cup with pastry flour. Sift and remeas- 
ure. Continue sifting as long as there is any 
increase in volume. How many times is it 
worth while to sift flour for cake ? 



CAKE-MAKING 235 

4. Wash out the gluten from equal weights of the 
two flours and compare the amounts obtained. 
(Add water gradually to make a dough ball 
which can be handled. Knead in the palm of the 
hand under running water or in a bowl, until 
all of the starch has been removed. How can 
this be tested ? Bake a small portion in a hot 
oven as for pop-overs.) 

Cake-Making 

At first glance there seems to be an almost endless 
variety of recipes for cake. Even omitting flavorings as 
variations, there are still plain cakes, and rich cakes, differ- 
ing in the amount of egg, sugar, and butter used, until one 
almost concludes that any proportions will do. But on 
further analysis certain fundamental facts can be dis- 
tinguished. 

Take, first, the proportion of liquid to flour. Whether 
the butter is melted in mixing or not, it melts in the oven 
and then counts as liquid. The fat, then, as well as 
the liquid, must be counted. If a richer cake is de- 
sired than the one made in the laboratory, the amount 
of butter can be increased if the amount of liquid is cor- 
respondingly decreased. For example, good cake can be 
made with three-quarters of a cup of butter and three- 
quarters of a cup of liquid, or with a cup of butter and a 
half of a cup of liquid. In any of these cases the sum of 
the two is still one and a half cups. In "pound cake'' the 
whole amount is butter, and no liquid proper is used. 
Eggs, on the other hand, while they increase the liquid 
before baking, do not count as liquid after heat is applied. 
The sponge cake recipe would call for eighteen eggs to 
three cups of flour, with three tablespoons of lemon juice. 



236 FOOD STUDY 

Notice the very large number of eggs necessary when so 
Httle Hquid is used. In pound cake the proportions for 
three cups of flour would be only seven and a half eggs 
because of the butter used. 

Sugar makes the cake more crumbly as more and more 
is added, and increases the size and the lightness, but, 
meanwhile, the crust becomes sticky and tough, and 
the cake sweeter and sweeter. The amount of sugar 
in the general recipe may be increased to two cups if 
one likes a sweeter cake. If chocolate is added, the 
larger amount of sugar is desirable. 

The leavening in a cake of the type that is being dis- 
cussed, is mainly the gas from the baking powder, and a 
skilled cakemaker can get good results without beating the 
egg separately. But in pound and sponge cake where no 
baking powder, is used, great pains in folding in the egg 
must be taken, and one sees why nearly twice as many 
eggs for the same amount of flour are used. 

If one is making a butter cake the great question is in 
regard to mixing. The problem seems to resolve itself 
into the easiest way to get the ingredients blended very 
thoroughly. Hard butter is difficult to mix, also unbeaten 
egg. If the butter and sugar are not well creamed, the 
grain of the cake is coarse. On the other hand, the butter 
may be melted and successfully combined. Since beat- 
ing flour with liquid develops the gluten and so makes the 
cake tougher, this should be avoided as far as possible. 
For this reason the melted butter is better beaten in 
before adding the flour, instead of afterwards. Melting 
the butter saves much time. It is especially convenient 
in making chocolate cake, for the chocolate can be melted 
with the butter. 



BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS 



237 



Questions 

1. Why is pastry flour desirable in making cake? 

2. Account for the rule : If bread flour is used in place of pastry flour 
take out two tablespoons for each cup of flour called for in the recipe. 

3. In making cake what would be the effect of using bread floiu* 
mixed with a little cornstarch, say half a cup of cornstarch to two 
cups of flour ? 

4. What ingredients are changed in making a muffin mixture 
into a cake mixture ? 

5. Change various recipes for cake to a tliree-cups-of-flour basis, 
and see how the ingredients called for correspond to the general rule. 



BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS 
GINGERBREAD 

A. Prepare Baking-powder Biscuits. 
Use one-half of the following recipe : 



Floub 


Fat 


Salt 


Baking Powder 


Milk 


1 c. 


1 tbsp. 


1 tsp. 


Usual proportion 
for 1 c. flour 


? 



Add milk (find out how much is needed) to make 
(1) a stiff batter to be dropped from a spoon into 
muffin tins, 
or (2) a very soft dough which can be rolled out from 
one-half to one inch thick and cut into biscuit, 
or cut into small pieces and patted into shape. 
The dough should be so soft that it is sticky. 
Bake in an oven at 425-435° F. 
a. Bake one biscuit at once. 



238 FOOD STUDY 

b. Bake another after letting it stand from 
fifteen minutes to a half an hour. 

c. Bake a third biscuit in a slow oven. 

d. Bake a fourth after kneading the dough or 
vigorously stirring the batter. 

Compare the results and decide what precautions must 
be taken to make good biscuit. 

B. Make Sour-milk Gingerbread. 

Use corrected recipe in Question 4, Lesson XL VII. 

Baking-powder Biscuits 

There are two types of rolled baking-powder biscuits, one 
small and practically all crust, the other larger, lighter, 
and with comparatively little crust. To make the first, the 
biscuits are rolled thinner and baked farther apart than 
those of the second type which is, perhaps, the more 
conventional. 

The biscuits, which are made so soft as to drop and 
which need the support of muffin tins to give them shape, 
are more crusty than the more usual rolled biscuit. They 
are often called "emergency biscuit", because they can 
be prepared so quickly. 

After the liquid is added, any of these doughs should 
be worked as little as possible for, if they are, the gluten 
will be developed too much. This is the reason why the 
fat is worked in before the liquid. The fat can be cut in 
easily with two knives, or worked in with a fork, or rubbed 
in with the fingers. Since it is easier to combine the fat 
when it is cold, the first methods are to be preferred, espe- 
cially in warm weather. With as stiff a mixture as this, 
there is no escape of gas from the dough and the biscuits 
can stand without harm for a time before they are baked. 



BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS 239 

In fact, standing for a moderate period is slightly advan- 
tageous, because it gives time for some of the gas to be 
evolved before the dough is baked too much to rise. With 
a batter such as is used in griddle-cakes, the gas evolved 
soon escapes, and if the batter is kept over until another 
meal more baking powder must be added before using. 

Baking-powder biscuit dough, or a dough made with 
slight variations, is used in many ways. It is often used 
as a crust for meat pies, and sometimes for a deep fruit 
pie, in both cases there being no lower crust. It may also 
be used for fruit dumplings. Sometimes baking-powder 
biscuit dough is rolled out and sprinkled with maple 
sugar, or with sugar, cinnamon, raisins and currants or 
citron. The dough is then rolled up and cut off in pieces 
somewhat less than an inch thick, and baked as biscuit. 
This dough may have some sugar added in the making. 
Short-cake is only baking-powder biscuit dough with more 
fat, usually double the amount, and with some sugar added. 
Dutch apple cake may be made as a modification of the 
baking-powder biscuit recipe. To the dough made with 
one cup of liquid, an egg and two tablespoons of sugar are 
added. Sour milk or soda biscuit are made in exactly the 
same way as baking-powder biscuit, except that sour milk 
and soda replace the sweet milk and baking powder. 

Questions 

1. Write a recipe for soda biscuit, 

2. Is the habitual use of hot breads to be recommended ? 

3. What is the advantage of patting baking-powder biscuit into 
shape, instead of rolhng the dough ? 

4. If too much flour is used in shaping the biscuit, what is the 
result ? 

5. What is the difference in the result, if butter instead of lard is 
used as the fat ? If half butter and half lard is used ? What other 
fats may be used ? 



240 FOOD STUDY 

6. What IS the effect on the texture of increasing the fat ? 

7. What is the effect on the texture of increasing the sugar ? 

8. How many average-sized biscuits will one cup of flour make ? 
How much flour would you allow for biscuits for breakfast for a 
family of five ? 

LI 

SUGAR COOKIES 

GiNGERSNAPS 

A. Class Experiments. Yeast. 

I. Blend a yeast cake with a cup of water in which 
a teaspoon of molasses has been mixed. Divide into four 
portions. 

1. Freeze the first and then let it stand at room tem- 
perature. 

2. Boil the second and let it cool to room temperature. 

3. Heat the third to lukewarm. 

In turn, fill a test tube with part of each of these three 
portions and invert in the remaining liquid, taking care 
not to admit bubbles of air into the tubes. Use cups or 
tumblers, if no beakers are at hand. While inverting, the 
test tubes may be covered with the thumb or a piece of 
stiff paper. Keep at room temperature, and note result 
after an hour or two. 

4. Chill the fourth portion, fill a test tube with the mix- 
ture and invert as above, and place in an ice-box, or out of 
doors if it is cold weather. Compare the result with the 
others after the same length of time. 

II. Examine under a microscope yeast from an actively 
fermenting liquid, and make a drawing of a "plant." 

III. Observe the action of yeast with the following 
food materials and account for the results. Use f yeast 



YEAST 241 

cake and i c. liquid in each case. Invert in test tubes 
as before. 

1. Water. 

2. Water with | tsp. flour. 

3. Milk. 

4. Water in which potatoes have been cooked. 

5. Water and J tsp. of starch. 

6. Water and J tsp. of sugar. 

B. Make. Sugar Cookies or Gingersnaps. 
Sugar Cookies. 

2 tbsp. fat ^ ssp. soda 

I c. sugar I tsp. baking powder 

1| tbsp. egg I c. flour and amount neces- 

1 tbsp. soiu- milk sary to roll 

A few drops of vanilla 

Gingersnaps. 

i c. brown sugar i tbsp. cinnamon 

I c. molasses 1 tbsp. lemon juice 

3 tbsp. fat A little grated lemon rind 
I tbsp. ginger 1 c. flour 

I tsp. soda 

Roll as thin as possible. 

Yeast 

The compressed and dried yeast cakes sold in stores are 
usually made from yeast obtained from distilleries. Here 
the yeast is grown by sowing it in "wort", as it is called, a 
mixture of crushed grain or mashed potatoes, warm water, 
and sprouted barley. Under these conditions the yeast 
plants multiply rapidly. The yeast which collects as a 
scum on top of the wort is preferred for bread yeast, 
although the yeast which settles out at the bottom is 
sometimes used. The yeast is freed from impurities as 



242 FOOD STUDY 

far as possible, pressed to remove the water, and then cut 
into cakes which are wrapped in tin foil. Starch may be 
mixed with the yeast before the pressing process takes 
place. A small percentage of starch helps to keep the 
yeast, especially in warm weather, as well as making it 
easier to mix with the flour in bread-making. As the 
amount of starch used varied from five to fifty per cent, 
the government recently has ruled that if starch is used 
in compressed yeast cakes, its presence must be stated on 
the label. 

Compressed yeast cakes 
must be fresh to be in good 





From Conn's " Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home.' 



1. Yeast from a Dried 2. The Same Yeast after 
Yeast Cake. a few Hours' Growth. 

condition, and this can be told readily on examination. 
The cakes should be creamy white, not dark ; uniform in 
color, not streaked ; a firm, even texture, not slimy ; and 
there should be no disagreeable odor. 

Compressed yeast in good condition can usually be 
purchased in places of any size. In remote districts, how- 
ever, it cannot always be obtained while it is sufficiently 
fresh for use. Such communities may use dried yeast 
cakes which are made from the same yeast as the com- 
pressed yeast cakes. After the yeast is mixed with starch 
or meal, it is partly dried, either in the sun or at a low 
temperature under pressure. Under these conditions 
some of the yeast cells die, while others pass into a resting 



YEAST 243 

stage. Thus the dried yeast is not so active as com- 
pressed yeast and it takes longer to start fermentation. 
Time must be allowed for dried yeast to become actively 
growing and multiplying. 

Some housekeepers "make yeast" at home by using 
commercial yeast to start the growth. This is usually 
accomplished by adding a little dried yeast, or yeast from 
a previous growth, to potatoes which have been grated, 
mixed with water, and boiled and cooled. A small amount 
of sugar is also added. 

Brewers sell yeast in a liquid form, but usually to bak- 
eries rather than for use in private families, for such yeast 
must be used at once and is more trouble to transport 
than are yeast cakes. 

There are many different varieties of yeast, and the 
one sold for bread-making has really been selected as best 
for making fermented liquors, rather than because it is 
known to be the best for bread-making. Wild yeasts are 
sometimes used in making the so-called salt-rising bread. 
Here, milk is mixed with a little flour and salt and set aside 
to ferment. The action is apparently not always due to 
the same cause. Sometimes wild yeasts are present, 
and at other times the action is entirely due to bacteria. 
Bread made in this way is much less uniform than that 
made with cultivated yeast. 

It is interesting to know that although fermentation 
has been recognized and practised from very early times, 
nothing definite was known about the cause until Pasteur 
w^orked out the problem in the middle of the nineteenth 
century. The account of how he went to work to prove 
that yeast-cells really produced the changes and that they 
did not originate spontaneously, as was believed previ- 
ously, is a fascinating story of scientific research.^ 

1 " Life of Louis Pasteur," by Radot. 



244 FOOD STUDY 



Reference 

Conn. " Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home," section on 
Yeasts. 

Questions > 

1. Compare the recipe for sugar cookies with the muffin recipe. 
What is the effect of the increase of fat and the addition of sugar ? 
Why can cookies be rolled out without danger of toughening them ? 

2. Compare the recipe given for sugar cookies with one containing 
more fat, as, for example. Miss Farmer's recipe for rich cookies. 
What difference will you expect in the two kinds of cookies ? Cal- 
culate the difference in cost. 

3. Show what different flavors could be added to yoiu" recipes to 
make different varieties of cookies. Tell in each case how and when 
the new ingredient would be added. 

4. What fats could be used in making sugar cookies ? gingersnaps ? 



LII 
BREAD-MAKING 
A. Make Bread. 

^ tsp. fat (lard) 

f tsp. sugar 

5 tsp. salt 

I c. boiling liquid (water, or milk and water) 

Pour the liquid over the other ingredients. Let them 
stand until lukewarm (98°). Add | to J ^ yeast cake 
softened in J tbsp. lukewarm water. Sift in gradually 
f e. flour, or as much as is needed to make a dough as soft 
as can be handled. Knead thoroughly but lightly, until 

1 This large amount of yeast is added to enable the process of 
bread-making to be carried through in a very short time. For 
ordinary home use the proportions would be one yeast cake to a 
pint of liquid. The bread in this lesson can be mixed and baked 
in two hours. 



BREAD-MAKING 245 

it is elastic and does not stick to the hands. Place over 
lukewarm water in the top of a double boiler which may be 
greased. Cover tightly. (Why?) The top of the dough 
may be brushed lightly with fat. (Why?) Maintain 
the lukewarm temperature until the dough has doubled 
in bulk. 

Knead again until the bubbles have been evenly dis- 
tributed, adding no more flour than is necessary to keep 
the dough from sticking. Shape into a loaf, first cutting 
off sufficient dough to make two biscuits. 

Place the loaf in a greased tin, cover, and let rise until 
the loaf has doubled in size. Place in an oven at 450° F. 
for ten minutes, and finish baking at 365° to 385° F. 

Knead a little extra fat into the biscuit dough, shape, 
and let rise as in the case of the loaf. The best tempera- 
ture for baking rolls is 435° F. 

B. Class Work. Kneading. 

One student should make a larger quantity of dough, 
and each student in turn should be taught the correct 
process of kneading with the larger amount. 

Bread-mixing 

The term "breads" or " breadstuff s " includes unleav- 
ened bread, as well as bread which is raised with yeast or 
with gas from soda. The term " bread " is usually confined 
to bread made with yeast, and it is so used here. 

The essentials in bread-making are flour, liquid, salt, 
and yeast. Fat is usually added, and other ingredients 
may be. 

Bread is made in two ways, and is known as short- 
and long-process bread. The method of making short- 
process bread is the more modern. This method became 



246 FOOD STUDY 

possible only with the availability of fresh yeast, such as 
is found in compressed yeast cakes. In short-process 
bread-making, the yeast is stirred with lukewarm water 
and mixed with sufficient flour and warm water to obtain a 
dough of the desired consistency. The combination may 
be n\ade by stirring the water into the flour, or vice-versa. 
If fat is to be used, it is melted by pouring hot water over 
it and then allowed to cool to the proper temperature. 
The yeast is stirred with water to separate it, so that it 
can be mixed more readily with the other ingredients. 
The water should be warm, about 90° F., in order to hasten 
the growth of the yeast. This is desirable, because less 
time is given for the development of bacteria which may 
cause the dough to become sour. In order to maintain the 
suitable temperature after mixing, the dough is covered 
to prevent its cooling and also drying. The flour fur- 
nishes both protein and starch as food for the yeast plants. 
Pure yeast cannot act directly on starch. 

Flour contains diastase, an enzyme not unlike the 
ptyalin found in saliva, which is capable of changing the 
starch into sugar. As soon as sugar is produced, the yeast 
begins to act upon it by means of the ferments which it 
contains. These break up the sugar present into carbon 
dioxide and alcohol. The carbon dioxide is a gas which 
cannot escape easily through the dough, since the gluten 
present holds it, much as the soap in soapsuds holds air 
when one blows into it. 

Gluten in flour is developed by kneading, since this 
mixes water with the glutenin and gliadin, two proteins 
found in flour. Many people have an idea that bread 
must be kneaded with great force, but this is a mistake. 
The more lightly the dough is handled, the better the tex- 
ture of the bread. As little flour as possible should be 
used, but, of course, enough must be added to enable the 



BREAD-MAKING 247 

dough to be handled without sticking to the board or the 
fingers. Experience makes it possible to handle a very 
soft dough, and this is probably one of the ways in which 
skill counts in bread-making. 

As the yeast grows and produces carbon dioxide, the 
dough is stretched by the gas until it is full of bubbles, and 
"rises." The action is allowed to go on, until the dough 
has doubled in bulk. At this stage, it could be baked, 
but it would give a bread of very uneven texture, for, with 
all the care in mixing, the bubbles of gas are unevenly 
distributed and some are very large. So, instead of being 
baked, the dough is kneaded again, this time to break 
up the larger bubbles and to distribute the gas as evenly as 
possible. Then the dough is shaped into loaves. It is 
again set in a warm place for the yeast to produce more 
gas, since some was lost in the kneading process. When 
the dough has doubled in bulk, it is ready for baking. 

Fat is commonly added because the bread is "shorter", 
as it is called, that is, less tough . Sugar is sometimes added 
to hasten the starting of the yeast, as well as to make the 
bread more tender. Potatoes and potato water also seem 
to stimulate the yeast to quicker action, and to make the 
bread less dry after it is baked. Milk may be used as the 
liquid in place of part or of all of the water. It adds some 
fat as well as a little more food value to the bread and 
changes its flavor somewhat. If milk be used, it is first 
scalded to kill some of the bacteria present. There is 
always danger of the dough souring, because the yeast 
itself is not free from bacteria, and some kinds of bacteria 
act on the alcohol and produce acids which make the 
bread sour. In a short-process bread, there is less danger 
of sour dough, because the yeast usually acts too quickly 
to give the bacteria time to multiply sufiiciently to produce 
enough acid to sour the dough. 



248 FOOD STUDY 

The liquid must not be mixed with the yeast while it is 
too hot, or the yeast will be killed. Yeast plants cannot 
stand a temperature of 130° F. 

The length of time necessary to make bread by the short 
process depends upon the amount of yeast used. If the 
first rising is to be overnight, usually from one-fourth to 
one-half of a yeast cake is used for each quart of liquid. 
To shorten the time of rising, the amount of yeast can be 
increased almost indefinitely. Even as many as five or 
six cakes of yeast can be used and, if they are perfectly 
fresh, they will not give a disagreeable flavor to the bread. 
But since they increase the cost of the bread unduly, 
usually not more than a cake to a quart of liquid is used. 

Since neither yeast nor bacteria grow well in the cold, 
it is possible to check the rising of the dough by placing 
it in an ice-chest or some other cold place. This is some- 
times done in order to keep the dough so that hot biscuits 
may be served at a special time. 

Long-process bread is made by setting a sponge. This 
means that in the first mixing only about half the flour is 
used. The sponge, as it is called, is really a batter. This 
is allowed to stand until it is very light and foamy. Then 
the rest of the flour is mixed with it and the dough is 
then treated as if this were the first mixing in short-process 
bread. The advantage of this way of making bread is that 
dry yeast can be used, for the rising of the sponge gives 
time for it to become actively-growing yeast. Some cooks 
set a sponge when using compressed yeast, but there is no 
necessity for doing so, and as the long process means more 
work than the short process, the latter method should be 
preferred. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 389. ''Bread and 
Bread-Making." 



BREAD 249 

Questions 

1. What will happen in bread-mixing : 

(a) if the water is too warm ? 

(6) if, in very cold water, the flour is not warmed ? 

(c) if the bread is put to rise in too warm a place ? 

(d) if the bread is put to rise in too cold a place ? 

(e) if the bread is insufficiently kneaded before shaping 
into loaves? 

(/) if the bread is kneaded too heavily ? 
(g) if too much flour is used ? 

2. What may happen if the liquid is not scalded ? 

3. When is it advantageous to use a bread mixer ? 

4. Why is a different temperature required in baking bread and 
rolls ? 

LIII 

BREAD 

Rolls 
Graham and Oatmeal Bread 

A. Class Work. Parker House Rolls. 

Make Parker House rolls by the long process method of 
making bread. 

Use: 

2 c. scalded milk 1^ tsp. salt 

3 tbsp. butter 1 yeast cake 

2 tbsp. sugar 3 c. flour to make sponge 

About 3 c. flour to make dough 

When ready to form rolls, divide the dough into small 
pieces and shape into Parker House rolls, tea biscuits, 
finger rolls, cinnamon rolls, and the like. See cook books 
for directions. 



250 FOOD STUDY 

B. Make Graham or Oatmeal Bread. 
Follow the short process of making bread. 
Graham Bread. 

1 V 'A I ^ ^' ™^lk 

1 ^ c. water (3 tbsp. may be potato water) 
1 yeast cake (?)^ 
Ij c. white flour 
If c. graham flour • 

1 tsp. salt 

2 tbsp. brown sugar, or | c. molasses 

Oatmeal Bread. 

Pour two cups of boiling water over one cup of rolled oats. 

Add 4 tbsp. brown sugar, or ^ c. molasses 

2 tbsp. fat 

1 tsp. salt 

1 yeast cake ( ?) ^ 

Floiu" to make a stiff dough, about 4^ c. 

Bread 

When bread has risen sufficiently, it is placed in a hot 
oven at about 450° F. Baking the dough accomplishes 
a number of things. It kills the yeast plants so that 
fermentation stops ; it also kills any bacteria which may 
be present ; it expands the carbon dioxide gas so that the 
loaf is larger after than before baking; it vaporizes the 
alcohol and drives it off; it hardens the gluten so that 
the bread, once risen, will keep its shape and will not fall 
when it cools ; and, finally, it causes the starch on the in- 
side of the loaf to take up water and become hydrated, 
while it dextrinizes some of the starch in the crust. 

As these are all essential processes, it is important to be 
sure that the bread is so thoroughly baked as to effect 

1 Amount depends on time to be given to rising. 



BREAD 



251 



ULS- Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experimeiit Stations 

AC True: Director- 



Prepared by 

CfTLANGWORTHY 

Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 



oniD 

Protein 



Fat 



Carbohydr<rte» 



Fuel Value 

s Sa In. Equals 

1000 Calories 



WHITE BREAD 

Waten 35.3 



Ash Water 

WHOLE WHEAT BREAD 



Fat: 1.3 




R-otein :9.2 






'UEIL VALUE. 



OAT 
BREAKFAST FOOD 




1215 CALORIES U/Afer- ^Vl-'S 

PER POUND vvat«r,_04^2 
Rrotein.-; 



,t:0.5 



TOASTED 

BREAD A3hro.7 





VALUE 

Water: 24-.0 
•otein:11.5 

Carbo- 
hydrates: 61.2 



Fuel B | 
^-^LUE^I I 



11 4-0 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



hydrates: 11.5 

CORN BREAD 

285 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



14-20 CALORIES 
PER PQUMD 



MACARONI 

coOKCo 

Protei n: 3 O^.JA^ ater: 78 .4- 




Carbo:. 
hydrates 




1205 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Carbohydrates: 15.8 value 



4-1 5 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Composition of Beead and other Cereal Products 



252 FOOD STUDY 

all these results. In bread which is insufficiently baked 
all the organisms which are present may not be killed, 
and it may grow sour as it is kept. Bread is sufficiently 
baked when tapping the top and bottom of the loaf pro- 
duces hollow sounds. Since long baking is so desirable, 
many people lower the heat after the bread is well baked, 
and leave the loaves in the oven for a long time. 

Bread-making is, perhaps, one of the most common 
subjects for cooking contests because, if one is to count on 
always turning out excellent results, considerable skill is 
required, as well as knowledge of the reasons for all the 
steps. The requirements for a perfect loaf are shown by 
the score cards used in judging such contests. The follow- 
ing is the one given in the U. S. Experiment Station 
Bulletin No. 225. 

Score Card for Judging Bread 

Thoroughness of baking 20 

Color (1) Shade, golden brown 6 

(2) Evenness 6 

Shape of loaves, oblong, 1 to 2 lbs 8 

Sweetness, no sourness after thorough mastication ... 25 

Flavor, slightly milky 15 

Quality of crumb, moist but not wet 8 

Evenness of crumb 3 

Firmness of crumb 4 

Color of crumb, cream rather than pearl white .... 5 

Total 100 

To obtain the best results in baking, the loaves should 
be single and about 4 inches X 4| inches X 9 inches in 
size. 

Freshly baked bread is indigestible, because of the 
difficulty of mastication. Such bread tends to roll up 
into a pasty mass instead of breaking up as a cracker does 
when it is chewed. 




Bread axd Rolls made with oxe Yeast Cake 




Graham Bread made without Kxeadixc 




Loaf of Bread axd Parker House Rolls 

From " Cooking for Two," by Janet McKenzie Hill. 



BREAD 253 

Bakers' bread is usually much lighter than home-made 
bread, a slice of given dimensions weighing about half 
as much as a slice of home-made bread of the same 
size. It is, of course, slice for slice, just about half as 
nutritious, and we usually eat more of the bakers' bread 
to satisfy our appetites. This does not condemn bakers' 
bread as a food, but the fact relnains that this must be 
taken into consideration in comparing the cost of pur- 
chased with that of home-made bread. The demand for 
the ready-made product is becoming so great that usually 
a fairly well-made bread can be purchased almost any- 
where and the average quality is probably better than in 
the average home-made product, for many housewives 
make bread much below the standard. 

Since yeast leaves no such questionable residues in the 
bread as baking powder does, the constant use of yeast bread 
is supposed to be preferable to that of baking-powder 
breads, but the bad elTects of the too continued use of 
the latter may be partly the result of the habit of eating 
such breads hot instead of cold. 

Questions 

1. When would you prefer to make a long-process bread? 

2. Why should bread not be put away while it is still warm ? 

3. Why is bread stored in a bread-box ? 

4. Why should cake and bread be kept in separate boxes ? 

5. Compare the weight and the price of home-made and bakers' 
loaves of bread. 

6. Compare the cost per loaf, if short-process bread is set over 
night, or is made in two hours. 

7. Compare the cost of making bread with compressed yeast set 
over night, and with dried yeast used in long-process bread. 

8. What is "potato yeast" ? How is it made and used? 

9. How would you make whole wheat bread ? rye bread ? 

10. Why is some white flour used in making such breads as 
graham, rye, and oatmeal ? 



254 FOOD STUDY 

LIV 
PIES 

A. Class Experiments. 

Correct Proportions of Fat and Liquid to Flour. 

I. (a) Mix a teaspoon of lard and three teaspoons of 
flour into a small cake and bake. 

(6) Repeat, using butter instead of lard. 

(c) To explain the difference in the results, melt, 
over hot water, 1 oz*. butter and 1 oz. lard. 
Let stand, and notice any differences. How 
would you substitute one for the other ? 

IL (a) Repeat I (a), but add to each a carefully 
measured amount of water, the least possible 
necessary to make the mixture hold together. 
How much is used ? 

(6) Repeat, using twice as much water. 

(c) Repeat, using three times as much water. 

HL Repeat H (a), but use very hard fat and ice water, 
cutting them into the flour with a knife. Why? 
Write a recipe with directions for making pie crust. 

B. Prepare Pie Crust. 
Use either: 

1. All butter. 

2. M lard. 

3. Half lard and half butter. 

4. All Crisco. 

What proportion of fat will you use in each case? 
How will the amount of salt vary with the amount of fat 
used ? Roll out crust. 



PASTRY 255 

1. Cover the bottom of a small inverted pie-plate with 
a very thin crust. Prick with a fork. Bake in a hot 
oven for a few minutes. Slip the crust into the in- 
side of the plate and finish baking. 

2. Cover the inside of the plate with crust. Do not 
prick. Bake as before. Compare with (1) for use 
as a shell for pie. Explain the behavior of (2). 

3. Bake a piece of the crust trimmings in a very slow 
oven. Decide upon the best temperature for baking 
pastry shells. 

C. Prepare an Apple Pie. 

Pastry 

Pastry flour differs from bread flour in having a smaller 
amount of gluten and a larger amount of starch. The 
advantage in using it for pastry and for cake is that so 
made they are more tender than when made with the 
larger amount of gluten. It is quite possible, however, 
to make both good pastry and good cake with ordinary 
bread flour. If bread flour be used, greater care should 
be taken not to develop the gluten by too much working. 
This is just the opposite of what we try to do in making 
bread. 

Pastry flour is made in two ways. It is sometimes made 
by grinding the "softer" winter wheat; sometimes by 
selecting the flour stream from the grinding of ''hard" or 
spring wheat, which will furnish the largest percentage of 
starch. The housekeeper may get much the same eftect 
by adding cornstarch to bread flour, using three piarts of 
flour to one part of cornstarch. The flour sold as pastry 
flour is often unsatisfactory, being in reality only a poorer 
grade of flour and one not adapted especially to pie- and 
cake-making. Pastry flour is distinguished from bread 



256 FOOD STUDY 

flour by its whiter color, its smoother and less gritty qual- 
ity, and by its retaining better the print of the fingers, if 
squeezed in the hand. 

Since no leavening agent is ordinarily used in pie crust, 
careful handling is necessary to entangle air in the dough 
so that the heat of the oven shall expand it and produce 
a light crust. This is accomplished by the many foldings 
of the dough after it is first rolled out. This folding makes 
many horizontal layers which in a light, baked crust are 
separated somewhat from each other. The large amount 
of fat undoubtedly helps in the power of these layers to 
retain gas which may be partly the air, as already men- 
tioned, as well as vapor from the water in the dough. 
Moisture undoubtedly plays a larger part in leavening 
pastry than it does in bread, because here the thin layer 
of crust is heated more quickly to a much higher tempera- 
ture than that of the inside of a loaf of bread. 

Fat in pie crust makes it short and flaky. Different 
fats are used, butter, oleomargarine, lard, Crisco, cottolene, 
and the like. Butter usually gives the best flavor, but it 
is the most expensive. Sometimes part butter is used. 

Pie crust is not generally considered very digestible, 
due to a number of reasons. The lower crust, if wet and 
soggy and underdone, forms a soft mass which is rarely 
properly mixed with saliva in chewing. Well-baked pie 
crust which is flaky and crisp undoubtedly breaks up 
better and so is more digestible. Overheated fat is not 
easily digested and, for some people, this may be a source of 
difficulty. Then, so little liquid is used with the flour that, 
often, part of the starch is not hydrated at all, so that even 
after baking, it is not really changed from raw starch. 
It is easy to see that the really light and flaky crust is the 
most desirable from the standpoint of digestibility, as 
well as from that of taste. 



DOUGHNUTS 257 



Questions 

1. What effect does water have on flour? 

2. What effect has fat ? 

3. How are crusts of a two-crust pie held together ? 

4. Is there a difference in the oven temperature for pies filled 
with cooked and uncooked mixtures ? Why ? 

5. Compare butter, Crisco, and lard as shortening in pastry. 

6. What effect has temperature during mixing and before baking 
on the resulting pie crust ? Why is this ? 

7. Why is pie crust difficult to digest ? 

8. Why is it necessary to perforate crust for single-crust 
pie? 

9. Is it necessary to butter a pie-tin ? 

10. Can unbaked pastry be kept over from one day to the next ? 
How? 



LV 
DOUGHNUTS 

A. Class Experiments. Fats. 

1 . Examine the following fats : butter, oleomar- 
garine, lard, cottonseed oil, olive oil, beef fat, 
Crisco, and snowdrift. Note the difTerences in 
color and odor. 

2. Find the temperatures at which butter, lard, 
and Crisco melt. Place two tablespoons of each 
fat in small beakers, stand in warm water, insert 
a thermometer, and note the temperature at 
which the fat melts. 

3. Put drops of olive oil and oil of peppermint on a 
piece of paper and warm them. How do they 
differ? 

4. To determine the "cracking" or "burning 
point" of fats : 



258 FOOD STUDY 

a. Test butter with blue litmus paper; then 

place about two teaspoons of butter in a 

small evaporating dish and heat until the 

first appearance of smoke. Determine the 

temperature of the fat. Hold a piece of 

moist litmus paper in the fumes. 

h. Repeat with lard, olive oil, and Crisco. 

In which fats would it be best to fry ? 

5. Heat fat, lard, or Crisco to 355° F., and then 

determine in how many seconds a small piece of 

bread will brown in the fat. Repeat with the 

fat at 365° F., and at 385° F. What is the effect 

on the bread at the low temperature? Of the 

last two temperatures, which would be better 

for frying uncooked material like fritters? 

Material already cooked, such as croquettes? 

B. Make Doughnuts. 

Use one-eighth of the following recipe : 

1 c. milk 2 tsp. salt 

2 tbsp. butter 4 eggs » 
1 c. sugar 4 c. floiu* 

4 tsp. baking powder 1 tsp. cinnamon 

\ tsp. nutmeg 

C. Clarify the Fat Used. 

Heat the fat slowly with a few slices of raw potatoes; 
then strain through cheesecloth placed in a strainer. 

Fats 

Fat, a term which is used to include edible oils as well, 
is, like carbohydrate, a source of energy in the body. 
Weight for weight, fats furnish the body with two and a 
quarter times as much energy as do the carbohydrates. 



FATS 



259 



U.S. Department of Agricufture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A.C.True : Director 



FVepared by 

C.FILANGWORTHY 

Ejpert in Charge of Nuti-iton Irwest'gations 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 

I Fuel Volue 
i^ Sq In. Cqual» 
1000 Calories 

BACON 



aiiiD ^ mm ^ QErai 

Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash Water 

OLIVE OIL 



4080 




UEJ. value;.- 



3030 CALORIES PER POUND 

Water:13.2 
•otein:^.7 



8h:03 



BUTTER 

Fat-.85 




A5h73:0 



3^10 



3510 CALORICS PER POUMO 

r:11.0 



■otein:1.0 



LARD 




CALORIES PER POUND 



4080 



CALORIES PER POUND 



Composition of Foods Containing much Fat 



260 FOOD STUDY 

But not all substances which are ordinarily spoken of 
as fats are really pure fat. Olive oil and lard are prac- 
tically pure fat, but butter contains only eighty-four per 
cent of it, the rest being mostly water, curd, and mineral 
matter. 

Fats are usually divided into two classes, — volatile and 
non-volatile fats. These terms are somewhat misleading, 
as the volatility does not refer to the fats themselves, but 
to the fatty acids which enter into their composition. All 
fats are chemical compounds of glycerine and fatty acids. 
Those that are made from volatile fatty acids have low 
melting points and are more digestible than most of the 
fats of the other class. They are found in milk fat, hence 
also in cream and butter. 

The non- volatile fats of food are chiefly three : olein, 
palmitin, and stearin. The first of these has so low a 
melting point that it is an oil at ordinary temperatures. 
Olive and cottonseed oils are largely composed of olein. 
Stearin has the highest melting point of the three, and so 
fats like suet, which is largely stearin, are fairly firm. 
The melting point of palmitin is between that of the other 
two. Most of the fat of foods is a mixture of these non- 
volatile fats. The melting point of some of them is 
shown in the following table : 

Lard 86-102° 

Butter 83-95° 

Olein Fluid 

Olive oil Fluid 

Cottonseed oil . . . Fluid 

Fats which have a melting point of 110° or below, seem 
to be digested about equally well. However, the eating of 
fat causes the food to remain longer in the stomach and so 
retards the processes of digestion. In some cases this may 



Stearin . . . 


. 140° F. 


Mutton fat . . 


. 116.5-123 


Palmitin . . . 


. 113° 


Beef fat . . . 


. 107.5-122 


Bacon fat . . . 


. 103° 



FATS 261 

cause digestive disturbances by allowing more time for 
the decomposition of food in the digestive tract through the 
action of bacteria, but fat itself is not liable to objection- 
able decomposition during digestion. Fat which has been 
heated to too high a temperature is much more liable 
to cause digestive diflSculties, because, apparently, of the 
presence of irritating decomposition products. Hence 
it is necessary in selecting a fat for frying to consider the 
temperatures at which this decomposition takes place. 
The following is a table of "cracking points'^ as the de- 
composition temperatures are often called : 

Crisco 896° F. Lard 419^75° 

Olive oil .... 608-680° Butter 365-428° 

Cottolene .... 450° 

Fats vary greatly in cost, olive oil being expensive. 
Advantage should be taken of the lower price asked for it 
in quantity. (Buying oil in a small bottle is very extrava- 
gant.) Italian oil in bulk is usually cheaper than French 
oil. Good American oil is manufactured in California. 

Butter and cream are also expensive sources of fat, but 
they are very desirable for children and invalids on account 
of their ease of digestion. Bacon fat ranks with butter 
and cream both in digestibility and expense. Fat left 
from the frying of bacon should be carefully saved for 
sauteing, as should that tried out from the fat of beef, 
veal, pork, and chicken. Even the fat which hardens on 
soup stock can be used. Gravies, sauces, cream soups, 
and gingerbread may all be made with such fat, and vege- 
tables and meat may be sauted in them. Mutton fat ^ has 
so strong a flavor that it is usually objected to on this 
account. 

1 For ways of utilizing this fat, see U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 
Bulletin No. 310, page 11. 



262 FOOD STUDY 

Yolks of eggs are one-third fat and furnish fat in a very 
digestible form. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 310. "Digestibility of 
Some Animal Fats." 

Questions 

1. How are these fats obtained : butter, lard, cottonseed oil, 
olive oil, beef fat, lard, Crisco ? 

2. What does each cost per pound ? Are fats sufficiently expensive 
foods to make it worth while to consider economy in their use ? 

3. Suggest good opportunities for the substitution of a cheaper 
fat for a more expensive one. For example, would it be better to use 
lard in gingersnaps or sugar cookies ? 

4. Discuss the digestibility of fats. 

5. What care must be taken in frying food to make it as digestible 
as possible ? 

6. Why is fat-soaked food indigestible ? 

7. What is the difference between sauteing and frying ? 

8. Why does the cooking of slices of raw potato in fat clarify it ? 

9 . Why is deep-fat frying dangerous, especially over an open flame ? 

10. Why should fried foods be drained on sterilized paper ? 

11. Why should foods to be fried be as dry as possible? 

12. How is soap manufactured ? 



LVI 

MILK FATS 

Butter 

Whipped Cream 
Philadelphia Ice Cream 

A. Class Experiments. Cream and Butter. 

1. Examine a drop of cream under the microscope. 
Note the globules of fat. Compare with drops 



CREAM AND BUTTER 263 

of whole and of skimmed milk examined in the 
same way. 

2. Chill a portion of cream and whip ^ until stiff. 
Reserve and finish as whipped-cream pudding. 

3. Warm another portion and whip as above. 
Explain the difference in the result. 

4. To make butter. 

Shake a weighed and measured amount of ripened 
cream in a preserve jar, until the fat separates. 
Add ice. Collect the lumps into a mass and 
plunge them into ice water and work out all 
the buttermilk. Weigh. Add salt in the pro- 
portion of one-half ounce to every pound of 
butter. Compute the cost of this butter and 
compare it with the market price. 

B. Prepare Whipped-cream Pudding. 

Beat into whipped cream, crumbs rolled from dried 
macaroons, or from gingersnaps, or dried cake, or stir in 
dates or figs cut into small pieces. Sweeten and flavor 
as desired. Candied cherries may be used as decorations. 

C. Prepare Philadelphia Ice Cream. 

Add flavoring and sweetening to cream and freeze, stirring. 

Use ^ c. cream ; add 2 tsp. sugar and ^ tsp. vanilla ; or 
2 tsp. sugar and 2 tsps. ground macaroons ; or melt 1 tsp. 
grated chocolate, add 1 tbsp. sugar and gradually stir 
in the cream ; or add fresh or canned fruits and sweeten to 
taste. 

Butter 

It is curious to think that butter, now considered such 
an indispensable article of diet, was not used at all in 

' 1 The efficiency of different cream whippers may be tried out. 
Some will whip the cream from the top of an ordinary milk bottle. 



264 FOOD STUDY 

ancient times. Even the butter used in the Middle Ages 
is said to have been semi-Hquid and a very inferior article. 
In njodern times butter-making has been a household 
industry until very recently. The first creamery in the 
United States was built about 1861. Now such, establish- 
ments are common, and are often owned by associations 
of farmers. Sometimes the milk itself is sent to the 
creamery, in other cases only the cream. The milk or 
cream, as the case may be, is usually tested and paid for 
on the basis of the fat content. More and more, cream is 
being pasteurized before ripening. This kills any disease- 
producing germs, as well as most of the others, and gives 
a more uniform product and one which keeps well. The 
ripening is accomplished by the addition of skimmed 
milk which is in a state of active fermentation. The 
mixture is kept at about 70° F., then it is colored and 
churned. It is interesting to note, so accustomed are 
we to colored butter, that while the coloring of most 
foods is forbidden unless so labeled, the coloring of butter 
is permitted. The washing of the butter after churning 
is an important part of the process ; carelessness means the 
failure to remove enough of the buttermilk, which gives a 
streaked butter of poor keeping qualities. Butter made 
on the farm often fails to be good because of insufficient 
working. Salting not only gives flavor, but helps in the 
keeping of the butter, partly by aiding the removal of the 
buttermilk. The amount of moisture in butter varies, 
but more than sixteen per cent is usually illegal ; the aver- 
age amount is about twelve per cent. 

Butter which is kept too long becomes rancid, that is, 
of poor flavor and odor. This rancidity may be from two 
causes, the more common of which is not the decomposition 
of the fat, but the spoiling of the protein present in the 
curd. Renovated or process butter is butter which has 



BUTTER 265 

been reworked after becoming more or less rancid. The 
butter fat is removed from the rest by melting, and air is 
blown through to remove any bad odor ; then it is mixed 
with fresh cream or milk, and churned. Some states 
restrict the sale of this butter, although they permit the 
sale of poor butter. 

Many housewives seem to be ignorant of the fact that 
poor tasting butter can be renovated fairly well at home 
by merely working the butter, so as to wash it thoroughly, 
in a succession of bowls of cold water. 

Oleomargarine or butterine has one advantage over 
butter, although it lacks the fine flavor. It is cheaper. 
It is made by churning other-than-butter fats with milk, 
or milk and butter, or milk and cream. Soft beef fat and 
neutral lard are often used and are sometimes mixed with 
cottonseed oil, cocoanut fat, or peanut oil. The butter 
makers have succeeded in having a tax of ten cents a pound 
placed on colored butterine, which makes the price of the 
product too high for it to compete with butter. The tax 
on uncolored oleomargarine is only a quarter of a cent a 
pound. As many people object to "colorless butter", fats 
which have a natural yellow color are used to give a colored 
product and yet avoid the excessive tax. Unfortunately 
the butterine made with the yellow fats does not seem to 
keep as well as the other. 

Oleomargarine is a perfectly clean, wholesome food and 
should be more widely used than it is. Many people 
cannot distinguish the difference in flavor between it and 
butter, especially for any use except with bread, and the 
flavor is decidedly to be preferred to that of poor butter. 
Its use in Europe is much more extensive than in this 
country. 

Buttermilk may contain not more than 0.2 per cent of 
fat, whereas normal milk contains about four per cent. 



266 FOOD STUDY 

This makes it evident that buttermilk is less hearty than 
whole milk, although there is a common belief that the 
contrary is true. Such milk is valued not only for its 
flavor and perhaps for its increased digestibility, but also 
for the lactic acid bacteria present. Some authorities 
hold that these bacteria are carried into the small intestine 
and keep in check the growth of those bacteria which cause 
putrefaction. Much of the milk sold as buttermilk is 
really fermented skim milk containing perhaps only 0.1 per 
cent of fat. The greater digestibility of fermented milk 
seems to lie in the finely divided condition of the protein. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 384. "Whipped 

Cream. " " Farm Butter Making." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 69. "Pasteurized Cream." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 237. "Care of Cream on the Farm." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 131. "Household Test for the Detection 

of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter." 

Questions 

1. In what form is the fat in milk ? 

2. Why does fat sold as cream command a higher price than the 
same sold as butter ? 

3. What is the difference between creamery and dairy butter? 
What is "country butter" ? 

4. What different butters are sold in your stores and how do the 
prices vary at the present time ? Compare with the cost of oleomar- 
garine. 

5. What are the variations in price of butter in your stores during 
the year ? What causes the variation ? 

6. What is the average percentage composition of butter? of 
cream ? 

7. What is rancid butter ? 

8. When butter shows whitish streaks through it, what is the cause ? 

9. Wliy does whipped cream usually sour more quickly than ordi- 
nary cream? 



CUSTARDS 



267 



LVII 

CUSTARDS 

Custard Ice Cream 

A. Prepare Boiled Custard. 

Use one-fourth of the following proportions 



1. 
2. 
3. 



Ego 


Milk 


Sugar 


1 

2 
1 

2 


1 C. 
1 C. 
1 C. 


1 tbsp. 
1 tbsp. 
1 tbsp. 



Flavoring 



I tsp. vanilla and a few grains of salt 
J tsp. vanilla and a few grains of salt 
I tsp. vanilla and a few grains of salt 



Beat the egg slightly, add milk and sugar, and cook 
over hot water, stirring carefully until the custard coats 
the spoon. Flavor and cool. Compare the various con- 
sistencies obtained. Which is best? 

B. Prepare Baked Custards. 

Use one-fourth of the following proportions, and the 
amount of egg determined in A. 





Ego 


Milk 


Sugar 


Flavoring 


1. 

2. 
3. 


? 
? 
? 


1 c. 
1 c. 
1 c. 


1 tbsp. 
1| tbsp. 
3 tbsp. 


as preferred 
as preferred 
as preferred 



Use scalded milk, otherwise mix as in A. Wet an 
earthen or china mold and pour in the mixture. Set in a 
dish of water and bake, until when tested with a knife, the 



268 FOOD STUDY 

blade comes out clean. What effect has the large amount 
of sugar on the consistency ? 

C. Prepare Frozen Custard or French Ice Cream.^ 

I II 

1 c. milk 1 c. thin cream 

6 tbsp. sugar \ tbsp. vanilla 

1 egg 
A pinch of salt 

Make a boiled custard from I ; cool, combine with II, 
and freeze. 

Milk 

Milk is of great importance as a food, and it is estimated 
that in the United States the per capita consumption is 
over half a pint a day. Because it is so universally used and 
forms so large a part of the diet of children and invalids, most 
states have set standards to which the milk sold must con- 
form. These standards are not identical in every state, 
but are more or less similar. The standards often regu- 
late the minimum amount of fat and of total solids (or of 
total solids, not fat) which the milk must furnish. They 
are intended to prevent skimming and watering. The 
average composition of milk is estimated to be : 

Composition of Milk 

Fat 4.0 per cent. 

Protein 3.3 per cent. 

Water 87.0 per cent. 

Carbohydrate 5.0 per cent. 

Ash 0.7 per cent. 

Total solids not fat 8.9 per cent. 

The fat and protein content of different milks vary much 
more than do the other constituents. The fat is sometimes 

1 In French ice cream only the yolks of eggs are used. Some 
flour may be substituted for Qgg, if preferred. 



MILK 



269 



USDeportment of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A.C.True: Dinectop 



R'epored by 

C.F:U\NGWOR"mY 
Expert in Charge of Nutrition Inves^gcitions 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 



affln 

fVotein 



Fat 



Carbohydrates 



Ash 



□mni 

Water 



IjFoel Value 
IE Sa In. Equals 
1000 Calories 



WHOLE MILK 



SKIM MILK 



Fat-A.(X 
Ash-.O. 



f--Water:87.0 



' — FVotein: 3.3 



Carbohydrates: 5.0 

c 

Fuel vauje:310 caudries pp? poukd 




H/Vater:90.5 
JProi&n:3/f 



Carbohydrates;5.1 

D 

FuO. VAUJe:165 CAUIRIE3 PER POUND 



BUTTERMILK 



CREAM 




atenOt.O 



R-otein:3.0 Fat:18. 



□ 



CarbohJclrale3:4-.8 Ash;0.5r Carbohydrates: 4-.5 




Fuel vauje:160 calokies per pound Fuel vauje:865 calories per pound 



Composition of Milk 



270 FOOD STUDY 

as low as three per cent, but may even be six per cent. The 
protein varies less, from about three per cent to four per 
cent. The amounts called for in the various state stand- 
ards run from two and a half per cent of fat in Rhode 
Island to three and a half per cent in a number of states ; 
the total solids not far from eight and a half to nine per 
cent. Occasionally a state requires a greater percentage 
of fat in summer than in winter. It may readily be seen 
that these requirements are reasonable and not excessive. 

Because milk sours readily, there is a strong temptation 
to add preservatives. This practice is forbidden by federal 
law for milk shipped from state to state, and is usually 
also forbidden by each state for milk sold locally. Such 
use of preservatives is less common now than formerly as 
a result of these laws, and is more likely to occur in small 
towns without milk inspectors than in large cities. Form- 
aldehyde and borax or boric acid are the more common 
preservatives used, and they are not at all difficult of 
detection by chemical analysis. Most state food labora- 
tories will analyze, free of charge, milk sent in by the con- 
sumer. If the milk being used does not sour so rapidly as 
would seem natural, it is wise to send it for analysis. The 
danger from preservatives is not great, but they are liable 
to interfere with digestion. 

A much greater danger from milk lies in the fact that it 
is so excellent a medium for the growth of bacteria. It 
must, therefore, be guarded rigidly from contamination. 
To begin with, it must come from a healthy cow. As a 
great danger lies in milk from cows which have tuberculosis, 
it is wise to have the cows tested with tuberculin. Since 
the milk must be protected from dust and dirt, the adja- 
cent parts of the cow, as well as the udder, should be 
cleaned before milking. The stable must be clean, well- 
drained, light, and airy. A special washable over-garment, 



MILK 271 

worn only at the time of milking, should be used by the 
milker, and his hands should be freshly washed. Machines 
for milking which give good service are now obtainable. 
It is of importance that the pails be sterilized and covered 
or "hooded." As soon as the milk is drawn, it should be 
removed from the stable to a separate milk-room used 
only for this purpose. Not only must this room be light 
and clean, but it should be screened against flies. It 
should be unnecessary to strain the milk. If this is done, 
it should be poured through sterilized cloth or cotton. 
It is important that the milk be cooled as rapidly as pos- 
sible and kept at a low temperature, since warmth so 
greatly stimulates the increase of bacteria. 

Certified milk is often obtainable. This means milk 
which is so handled that it can be guaranteed to be of an 
unusually good quality. It means inspection not only of 
the milk itself, from time to time, both as to chemical com- 
position and bacterial count, but also supervision of the herd 
and of the whole process of production. Such milk is 
of necessity costly, since this inspection must be paid for. 

Pasteurized milk is milk which has been heated to a 
temperature sufficiently high to kill any disease-producing 
bacteria which may be present. Usually the milk is heated 
to 140°-145° F. and kept at this temperature for twenty or 
thirty minutes, then cooled as rapidly as possible. Pas- 
teurization of milk is often required by the health authori- 
ties for market milk which does not come from tuberculin- 
tested cows. The process of pasteurization changes the 
taste less and brings about fewer changes in the substances 
present than does sterilization. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 363. "Use of Milk as Food." 



272 FOOD STUDY 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 413. "Care of Milk and Its Use'in the 

Home." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 457. "Production of Sanitary Milk." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 227 or 273. "Clean Milk." 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 237. "Care of Cream on the Farm." 

Questions 

1. Can milk be bought in your stores, in "bulk" as well as in 
bottles ? Which will you prefer ? Why ? 

2. What do you have to pay for milk? Does this vary with the 
season ? Is more than one grade of milk sold ? 

3. What is the standard for milk in your state? in your city? 

4. Will your laws allow the sale of skimmed milk? If so, what 
does it cost ? Does its food value justify this price ? 

5. What precaution will you take in caring for milk in the home ? 

6. Why will scalding postpone the souring of milk ? 

7. Describe a process for pasteurization of milk at home. 

8. If you are not sure of the sanitary quality of your milk, why 
will you recommend pasteiu'ization ? Why is this especially neces- 
sary in milk for babies and little children ? 

9. For what purpose are eggs used in custards? 

10. Why are the eggs beaten only slightly for custards? Why 
beaten at all ? 

11. How would the use of flour or cornstarch instead of some of the 
eggs in custard affect the price ? Which of the two would you prefer 
to substitute and why? 

LVIII 

ACIDS AND MILK 

Cream of Tomato Soup 
Lemon Milk Sherbet 

A, Class Experiments. Acids and Milk. 

The possible effect of heat and acids on sweet milk 
in making cream of tomato soup. 

1. Heat a little milk which is sour, but not separated. 
Note the result. 



CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP 273 

2. Mix a tablespoon of tomato juice with one of milk, 
and heat. Note the result. 

3. Add tomato juice, drop by drop, to a little milk, stir- 
ring, and see how much juice can be added before the 
milk separates. Then reverse the experiment, add- 
ing the milk to the tomato juice. 

4. Make a quarter of a cup of medium white sauce, 
omitting the salt, and add, stirring slowly, a quarter 
of a cup of hot tomato juice. Season. 

5. Compare the flavor of (4) with soups made by adding 
a saltspoon of soda to the tomato. 

Give the reasons for each of the following precautions 
in the making of cream of tomato soup : 

1. Be sure that the milk is perfectly sweet. 

2. Thicken either the tomato juice or the milk. Have 
each hot, and do not heat further after combining ; 
or combine cold, and heat only to the serving point. 

3. Omit salt until ready to serve. 

4. Pour the tomato into the milk. 

5. Avoid letting the soup stand after it is made. 

6. If the milk is old, or the tomato juice very acid, or the 
soup must stand (as in serving a large number of 
people), use soda. 

B. Cream of Tomato Soup. 

Prepare a half cup of cream of tomato soup, seasoning 
by heating onion, or cloves, or bay leaf in the milk. 
Remove, before serving. 

C. Prepare Lemon Milk Sherbet. 

Make in large amounts in a freezer, or stir and freeze 
in a tin cup. 

Lemon Milk Sherbet. 

4 c. milk li c. sugar 

Juice of three lemons 



274 FOOD STUDY 

Combine and freeze. Curdling will not affect the qual- 
ity after freezing. 

Milk {continued) 

The amount of fat in milk varies with the breed of cow 
as well as with the feed given. Milk from Jersey cows is 
high in fat ; from Holstein cows, low. Milk from the latter 
breed is considered best for babies. While the amount of 
fat in milk averages four per cent by weight, in the cream 
it averages from twenty to thirty per cent. The fat of milk 
is already in an emulsified form, so, like the fat of egg-yolk, 
it is considered especially digestible. Babies, however, 
often have difficulty in digesting much of it. This fat is 
peculiar in containing a relatively high amount of the 
volatile fats and less olein than is present in most fats used 
as food. It also contains a very small amount of stearin 
and a fairly large amount of olein. 

At least three-fourths of the protein in milk is casein. 
Some albumin is also present, as well as other proteins in 
much smaller amounts. These proteins are of high nutri- 
tive value. An unusually high percentage of them is 
digested and absorbed, and they do not readily undergo 
intestinal putrefaction. The percentage of protein in milk 
is much greater than in mothers' milk. To remedy this, 
milk for feeding to babies is diluted with water, after 
which more sugar is added. 

Sugar of milk is the carbohydrate present in milk. This 
sugar is less sweet than cane and is supposed to be much 
better for babies, because it is less liable to irritate the 
stomach. As, however, cheap grades of milk sugar are 
impure, and the pure sugar is exceedingly expensive, many 
doctors recommend the addition of cane sugar to the 
diluted milk in baby-feeding. 

The mineral elements in milk need special mention. 



MILK 



275 



Calcium and phosphorus are present in unusual amounts. 
The iron present seems to be in a form which is most 
readily assimilated, thus making up somewhat for the 
small quantity present. Babies are born with relatively 
more iron in their bodies than adults have. This seems 
to be nature's way of assuring them a plentiful supp y. 
Diluted cows' milk furnishes less iron than mothers milk 
and so babies which are fed artificially have other food 
added to their diet earlier than those which are nursed. 

Boiling milk seems to bring about certain changes m the 
substances present. The protein is undoubtedly changed, 
for such milk fails to clot with rennin, while raw milk 
clots readily. The boiling may also affect the vitamins 
present This mav be an important question when milk 
is used as the sole food. Boiled milk does not seem to be 
less digestible than raw milk. 

When milk sours, the lactic acid bacteria present change 
the milk sugar to acid. The acid finally precipitates the 
protein and the milk "clabbers." Milk containing too 
little acid to bring about this, may separate when heated. 
If salt is present, this is even more liable to happen. 
Herein lies the difficulty of making cream of tomato soup 
without neutrahzing the acid with soda, but the flavor is 
superior if soda is not used. ^ 

The important thing to remember in connection with 
milk is its value in the diet. A reasonable amount should 
be included even by those living at low cost. Sherman 
tells us that " those who are able to spend 30 to 40 cents per 
person per day for food are practising true economy when 
they buv and use liberally the best milk obtainable, even at 
a price of from 15 to 20 cents per quart." Also, m no 
other way can the food habits now prevailing, especially 
in the cities, be so certainly and economically improved 
as by a more liberal use of milk." 



276 FOOD STUDY 

References 

As in the previous lesson. 

Journal of Home Economics. Vol. VIII, pp. 429-432. "A Study 
of Condensed and Evaporated Milk." 

Questions 

1. What is meant by scalding milk? How can you easily tell 
when it is scalded ? 

2. Why is milk usually heated in a double boiler? When may 
this be done over a direct flame ? 

3. Would you infer that acid is present in chocolate, since 
chocolate fudge is so liable to separate in cooking ? Does the separa- 
tion affect the final product ? 

4. What two classes of condensed milk are there ? How are they 
prepared ? What do they cost ? How does this cost compare with 
that of ordinary milk ? 

LIX 

CURD OF MILK 

Cottage Cheese — Junket Custard 

A. Class Experiments. 

The Effect of Heat on Sour Milk. 

1. Test milk, sour enough to have clabbered, with blue 
litmus paper. Cut a little of the milk with a knife 
and strain some of the whey through cheesecloth. 
Save both curd and whey for comparison. 

2. Boil half a cup of the milk for three minutes. Strain 
through a cheesecloth and compare with the curd 
obtained in (1), (3), and (4). Reserve the whey. 

3. Heat half a cup of the milk in a double boiler until it 
separates. Strain through a cheesecloth. 

4. Pour half a cup of boiling water into half a cup of the 
sour milk. Take the temperature of the mixture. 
Strain the curd as before. 



FOOD FOR CHILDREN 277 

5. Compare the whey of unhealed milk with the whey 
obtained by heating, and decide why heat is used in sepa- 
rating. Examine the texture of the curds and determine 
the effect of great heat. Which methods of separation 
should be used in making cottage cheese ? 

B. Prepare Cottage Cheese. 
Season and serve as a salad. 

Class Experiments. 

C. 1. To one fourth of a cup of milk, add half a tea- 

spoon of rennin ^ solution. Boil, and set aside 
in a mold, until cool. 
2. To one fourth of a cup of lukewarm milk, add 
half a teaspoon of rennin solution. When cool, 
compare with (1). 

D. Junket Custard. 

Make a recipe for a "Junket Custard", using choco- 
late, caramel, or vanilla, as flavoring, and prepare the 
custard. 

Food for Children 

The subject of food for children is an important one, 
for the digestions of little children are easily upset. 
Failure in obtaining a properly balanced diet means 
failure in proper development and growth. 

Certain dishes are excluded from the children's bill-of- 
fare for various reasons. Coffee and tea should not be 
allowed, because they are nerve stimulants. Even cocoa 
as a regular drink is of questionable value, for it, too, con- 
tains a stimulating principle. Hot water with milk, or 
cereal coffee, will furnish hot drinks when called for, but 

* Rennin solution is made by dissolving a junket tablet in two 
tablespoons of water. 



278 FOOD STUDY 

all children should be encouraged to drink plenty of milk. 
A quart of milk a day for each child should be provided. 
This does not mean that such an amount must necessarily 
be drunk, because, when preferred, some of it may be 
served in soup, in white sauce, or in simple puddings. 
Secondly, foods containing much fat are excluded. This 
means pastry, fried foods, rich cake, and rich sauces, 
because they are difficult of digestion. For the same rea- 
son, pork, the fat of meat, and rich fish like salmon and 
mackerel, are forbidden. Spices, condiments, and strong 
acids such as vinegar, are also better omitted, as are raw 
foods containing much cellulose, as celery, cabbage, and 
radishes. 

Almost any vegetable can be given, if it is prepared 
properly for the child. Little children are likely to 
swallow with insufficient chewing, so carrots, parsnips, 
turnips, onions, peas, beans, and corn may be difficult of 
digestion for them. But these same vegetables rubbed 
through a sieve and served as puree or a cream soup are 
excellent. The difficulty of chewing also makes veal too 
difficult of digestion. Bananas and cheese are so readily 
swallowed in lumps that the form in which these are fur- 
nished should be considered. The mixing of macaroni or 
rice with a little cheese affords a satisfactory way in which 
to serve the latter. Bananas as well as apples can be given, 
even to very little children, if they are scraped or baked. 
Children are especially susceptible to infection, so raw 
fruits must be clean. Berries bought in market are almost 
impossible to clean properly, and so are safer cooked. 
Figs and dates can be washed in hot water and sterilized 
in the oven. 

Sugar may be given in moderate amounts, but it is much 
better not to stimulate the child's taste for it. Don't 
teach the baby to eat sugar. When given at all, as candy 



FOOD FOR CHILDREN 279 

or otherwise, it should be at the end of a meal. The 
objections to its use on cereals is that the child should be 
led to eat only because he is hungry, and not because he 
likes the taste of a special dish. Sugar is much more apt 
to be irritating when taken on an empty stomach. More- 
over, when eaten last, it is less apt to interfere with the 
apjDetite for otlier foods. 

Many authorities say that children are better off with- 
out meat until they are eight or nine years old. There is 
no question that many children are given meat in too 
large amounts. As Miss Hunt points out, a child of even 
six to nine years of age would have sufficient protein in his 
daily diet from one egg, three glasses of milk, and what he 
will secure from the bread, cereals, and vegetables which 
the normal child can be depended upon to eat. 

Children should be trained in eating habits just as much 
as in others. Many make the mistake of giving the little 
child only soft, mushy foods, and then wonder that he 
does not learn to chew. Crusts of bread and hard crackers 
are excellent educators for children beginning to eat. 

Most mothers are in a hurry and feed the child too 
rapidly. The next spoonful is waiting at his lips before 
he has swallowed the first. So the children learn to eat 
too rapidly. The older child is too often forbidden to talk 
at the table, so even that interference with rapid eating 
is done away wdth. It is wise not to excuse children from 
the table when they have finished, but to require them to 
stay until the end of the meal. The child in a hurry to 
return to play wdll eat much more rapidly if he knows he 
can go when he has finished eating. 

Children should be trained to like all kinds of food. 
If, as little children, they are fed vegetables in purees and 
soups, the difficulty which often occurs in teaching a child 
to like them will be avoided. Much can be accomplished 



280 FOOD STUDY 

by suggestion. If the older people do not eat all kinds of 
food, or if a child's dislikes are dwelt upon, difficulties will 
arise. The assumption that the flavor of a food is deli- 
cious and that the child will like it, will go far. 

Water-drinking is another habit which may need atten- 
tion. Food should not be washed down, nor should the 
water be iced ; otherwise, water at meals is desirable, as is 
also water between meals. Most adults drink too little 
water. 

Children should not eat whenever they are hungry, but 
at regular times. Lunches between meals should be 
provided regularly for little children. Care should be 
taken that the food be of such a nature as to be digested 
quickly, so as not to interfere with the following meal. 
It should be of such a character as to tempt only the 
hungry child to eat. 

The amount of food required by children at various 
stages of their growth is shown in a table in the Appendix. 
The total amount is considered a minimum rather than an 
outside limit. A child with a natural, unspoiled appetite, 
fed simple, nourishing food, can safely be trusted not to 
overeat. 

References 

U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 712. " School 

Lunches." 
U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 403. "The Daily Meals 
of School Children," by Caroline L. Hunt. 
Teachers' College Bulletin. "The Feeding of Young Children," 

by Mary Swartz Rose. 
Teachers' College Bulletin. "Food for School Boys and Girls," 
by Mary Swartz Rose. 

Questions 

1. Plan a series of meals for three days for a child of three, of six, 
and of ten. 



CHEESE PUDDING 281 

2. Plan five school lunches for a child of ten. 

3. Sum up the principal points concerned in the feeding of children. 

LX 

CHEESE 

Cheese Pudding 
Welsh Rabbit 

A. Class Experiments. 

Effect of Extreme Heat on Cheese. 

1. Heat a small piece of cheese for some time in a hot 
frying pan. Allow it to cool, and examine. What 
two constituents do you find present? What is the 
effect of extreme heat on protein ? on fat ? 

2. Heat another small piece of cheese in a double 
boiler (or over water). After the cheese is melted, 
cool it, and compare with (1). 

What precautions must be taken in cooking cheese ? 

B. Prepare Cheese Pudding — a luncheon dish. 

J c. milk f c. bread crumbs 

^ egg, beaten slightly 3 tbsp. grated cheese 

Salt and pepper 

Bake in a buttered dish, until firm. 

C. Prepare Welsh Rabbit. 

1 oz. cheese Cayenne or paprika 

I tsp. butter | egg, beaten slightly 

I tsp. mustard 1 tbsp. milk 

I tsp. salt 1 slice toast 

Melt the cheese and butter in a double boiler, mixed 
with the dry ingredients, and add the egg in the milk 



282 



FOOD STUDY 



U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A.C.True: Director 



FVepared by 

C.FLANGWORTHY 

Expert in Charge of Nutrition Iwestigtltions 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 

nnED ^ Enu ^ Qmn ■|/r',j:''^^,. 

■■ 1000 Calories 



Pwtein 



Fat 



Carbohydrates 



Ash 



WHOLE EGG 



Water 




FVo tein.-1A-.8 

Fat:10.5 
A5h;1 
FutL VALUE OF 



WHOLE EG(r> 



n 



700 CALORIES 
PCR POUND 



Water I 

EGG 

WHITE AND YOLK 



Water:^9.5- 
FVotein:l6.1 
Fat: 33. 3 
Ash: 1.1 

Fuel value of yolk« 



1608 CALOKCS 
PER POUND 




Water: 86.2 

R^otein:13.0 
at.-0.2 

bh:0.6 

Fuel value of whitE' 

D 

265cALQniCS 
F£R FOUND 



CREAM CHEESE 

Water:34.i 

R-0teiD:25.9 




Fuel value i 
1950 calories per pound 



COTTAGE CHEESE 

Water. 720 



Carba 
hydrates: 



FVt>te.n:20.9 




510 CALORIES PER POUND 



Composition op Eggs and Cheese 



CHEESE 283 

as soon as the cheese is melted. Stir, until it thickens, 
and pour over toast. 

Or: 

2. Make a medium white sauce and, while it is hot, stir 
in grated cheese, seasoning with salt and pepper. 

v^HEESE 

Cheese first was probably only a means of preserv- 
ing milk; now there are several hundred varieties. Like 
butter, cheese was a home-made product until about 
1850, while now, except for cottage cheese, almost no 
family makes its own supply. 

In making cheese, the milk is first allowed to "ripen " 
until it is at the right stage of sourness. Sometimes lactic- 
acid-forming bacteria are added to the milk in order to 
hasten the souring. If the cheese is to be colored, the col- 
oring material is mixed with the milk. Rennet is then 
stirred into the milk. This is a ferment capable of clot- 
ting milk, obtained from the lining of calves' stomachs. 
When the curd has formed, it is cut into small pieces; 
these are stirred and heated somewhat and piled up to 
drain off as much whey as possible, and so improve the 
texture of the cheese. The curd is again cut into small 
pieces and salted and pressed. The salt helps to check 
any further souring. The product at this stage is called 
green cheese, and is lacking in flavor until it undergoes a 
ripening process. For this purpose the cheese is stored 
at the desired temperature for weeks or even months 
until various ferments or micro-organisms, mainly bacteria, 
produce the desired flavor and texture. Finally, the rind 
is treated with disinfectants and painted or varnished to 
protect the cheese from further action. 

Cheese is of two main types, — hard and soft. Almost 



284 FOOD STUDY 

three-fourths of the cheese used in this country is hard 
cheese, of which "American Cheese" is an example. A 
more accurate name for this cheese is " American Cheddar 
Cheese." It is often called "New York Cream Cheese." 

Milk from goats may be used in making cheese. Some 
cheese is made from skimmed milk; some from whole 
milk ; some even from whole milk to which cream has been 
added. In "filled cheese", the cream is removed and lard 
or some other fat is substituted. The sale of skimmed- 
milk cheese and of filled cheese is often regulated by state 
laws. Federal laws require the sale of filled cheese in 
labeled packages. 

Cheese is often considered difficult of digestion, but 
undoubtedly part of this trouble is due to the failure to 
chew it sufficiently. Moreover, cheese, which is highly 
nutritious, is commonly eaten at the end of a meal and 
the consequences of overeating are laid to the indiges- 
tibility of cheese. Experiments conducted by Lang- 
worthy show that cheese is digestible both as to ease 
and completeness of digestion, there being "practically 
no difference between the cheese and the meat with 
respect to ease of digestion, at least in such quantities 
as are commonly eaten." American cheese is, then, a 
good substitute for meat, and, at ordinary prices, a cheap 
source of protein. 

References 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 487. " Cheese 
and Its Economic Use in the Diet." 

Questions 

1. What does ordinary cheese cost per pound? 

2. What is the average composition of such cheese? 

3. How does it compare in expense with meat as a source of pro- 
tein ? In total nourishment ? 



SALADS AND SALAD DRESSINGS 285 

4. What other kinds of cheese are for sale in your markets, and 
what do they cost ? 

5. Give examples of hard and soft cheeses. 

6. Discuss the digestibihty of cheese. Give as many reasons as 
possible why it is ordinarily considered somewhat indigestible. 

7. In making macaroni and cheese, would it be better to sprinkle 
the cheese on top, or mix it with the white sauce ? Give the reason. 

8. Suggest different cheese dishes. 

9. Give the essential steps in the making of cheese. 



LXI 

SALADS 
Salad Dressing 

A. Class Experiments. Emulsions. 

1. Shake together a few drops of oil with a little 
vinegar or water. Examine. Let stand, and 
examine again. Is the emulsion permanent? 

2. (a.) Shake together a few drops of oil with a little 
sodium hydroxide solution, and examine after 
letting it stand. 

(6) Shake together a little oil with a little 
vinegar and a little egg yolk, and examine after 
letting it stand. 

B. Make a Mayonnaise Dressing. 
Use the following proportions : 

I tsp. mustard ^ | tsp. paprika 

f tsp. sugar 1 tsp. vinegar 

i tsp. salt ^ tsp. lemon 

1 egg yolk I c. oil ^ 

1 May be omitted entirely. 

2 Olive oil or a good cottonseed oil may be used. A mixture of 
equal parts of the two is satisfactory. 



286 FOOD STUDY 

After separating, the yolk of the egg may be rolled 
about on a piece of cheesecloth, held flat in the hand, to 
remove all of the white. This will give a thicker dressing. 
Plave the mixing bowl and the ingredients cold. In very 
warm weather the bowl may be surrounded with cracked 
ice. Beat the yolk until it is thick and creamy. Add 
the dry ingredients, and, beating constantly, the other 
ingredients in one of the two following ways : 

1. Add the oil slowly, at first drop by drop, until a 
good emulsion is formed. Then add the lemon and 
vinegar alternately with the oil. Beat vigorously 
before each addition. 

2. Add the vinegar and lemon to the beaten egg ; then, 
add the oil, slowly. It should not be necessary to 
add it drop by drop. Beat vigorously between each 
addition. 

If the oil separates out, beat another yolk, and add the 
separated mixture slowly, beating vigorously. 

The mayonnaise may be mixed with whipped cream, 
or with stiffly beaten white of egg, immediately before 
serving. 

C. Make Boiled Dressing. 

1 egg 2 tsp. sugar 
^ c. milk 1 tsp. salt 

2 tbsp. butter 1 tsp. flour 

2 tbsp. vinegar | tsp. mustard ^ 

I tsp. paprika 

Mix the dry ingredients and add the vinegar. Beat the 
egg slightly and add the milk. Combine the two. Which 
should be poured into the other? iVdd the butter. 
Cook as boiled custard. 

1 May be omitted. 



ARRANGEMENTS IN THE KITCHEN 287 

If uncertain of the freshness of the milk, make without 
the vinegar and cool the mixture before adding the acid. 

B. Salads. 

Serve dressings on salads, using such combinations of 
meat, vegetables, fruits, and nuts, as seem desirable. 
Review Lesson XXX for treatment of lettuce. 

Suggestions : 

1. Apple and date with boiled dressing. 

2. Orange, pineapple, and grape, with mayonnaise. 

3. Apple, celery, and nut, with either dressing. 

4. Cabbage with boiled dressing. 

5. String beans with either dressing. 

6. Banana with boiled dressing, sprinkled with nuts. 

7. Potato salad with either dressing. 

Arrangements in the Kitchen and Dining Room 

The older idea of a kitchen is quite different from our 
modern ideal. Originally the kitchen was a living room 
in which the preparation of food was carried on as one of 
many industries. Therefore, when the room was in order, 
everything pertaining to cooking was, as far as possible, 
put out of sight. Now, the kitchen is a workshop for the 
preparation of food and need be adapted only for that 
use, and may show frankly the use for which it is intended. 

If one pictures the going to and fro which is necessary 
in the preparation of a meal, the advantage of a small 
kitchen is at once obvious. The stove, sink, and table, 
to save both time and steps, must be near each other. 
Their relative positions, also, make a considerable dif- 
ference in the steps w^hich have to be taken. In the 
preparation of a meal, food which is ready to go to the 
dining room is taken from the stove, placed in serving 



288 FOOD STUDY 

dishes, and carried into the other room. Therefore, a 
serving table should stand between the stove and the door 
into the dining room. This need not be a large table ; it 
may be only a shelf, even a folding shelf. It may very 
conveniently be covered with galvanized iron or zinc, be- 
cause then hot dishes and kettles can freely be set on it. 

On the other hand, a table on which food is prepared for 
cooking should stand next to the stove and near the storage 
cupboard and ice-box. These need not necessarily be in 
one straight line. Note the accompanying illustrations 
(floor plans of kitchens). 

For washing dishes, the drain boards and china closet 
should be near the sink. But, obviously, water will also 
be needed in mixing food, and in cooking it. The best 
way, then, to bring the sink near all these is to place it 
opposite the stove. 

This sort of arrangement of work is called "routing'' it. 
Unfortunately the positions of the stove, sink, and closets 
are often determined by the architect, with little or no 
regard to the convenience of the worker. But thought 
and ingenuity in putting up shelves and cupboards can do 
much in transforming an inconvenient kitchen into at 
least a more convenient one. 

Nor are these larger arrangements the only ones to be 
thought about. Quite as much saving of time can be 
made by the proper placing of utensils and supplies. 
Think where any given article is used most and keep it near 
that place. For example, soap, scouring powder, silver 
polish, as well as the dishpan, dish-mop, and the like are 
all used in the sink. Store them so that they are within 
immediate reach. Some may hang from the wall behind 
the sink, or from the edge of a small shelf placed above 
and a little to one side of the sink. Compare the con- 
venience of this with the practice, for example, of carrying 



ARRANGEMENTS IN THE KITCHEN 



289 



the dishpan, often every time it is used, across the kitchen 
and standing it in a pantry closet. 

Certain suppHes should be kept near the stove, as well 



1 1 1 1 1 1 
Cellar 



Cupboard 



Ice 
Box 



V 



y 






Sink 






ft 



Tabic 



/ 
/ 

OiningRoom S| (Table) /A 




o 
o 
o 

stove 



Serving 
Shelf 



From " yow and Your Kitchen," by Mrs. CbrUtiae Frtaeiick. 

Floor Plan of a Poorly-arranged Kitchen 

A. Steps taken in the preparation of a meal. B. Steps taken in 

clearing away. 



as spoons and other utensils to be used there. Of course, 
nothing which is not used frequently should be stored in the 
kitchen. Other things are better put away in cupboards 
or in the pantry. If the kitchen is dusty, as when a coal 



290 



FOOD STUDY 



range is used, open shelves may be replaced by cupboards, 
or by curtained shelves protected by a window shade 
which will roll up. Narrow shelves with articles only 
one row deep are much more convenient than wider 



^ 






lillilll 

Celiac 
iiiiiiii 








Hoosiec 
Cabinet 




Ice 

aox 


^A"v 






1 
1 
1 












o 
o 
o 

stove 


Drain 


8 
1 V 


Sink 






Drain 




1 
1 


Serving 
Shelf 


Table China 


\ I Al 


1 Oining Room 


II ■ — 
3, (Table) lA 



From " You and Your Kitchen," by Mrs. Christine Frederict. 

Floor Plan of the Same Kitchen, Properly Arranged 



shelves where the articles in front must be moved aside 
to give access to those behind. Plan never to hang one 
article over another on the same hook. 

Apply these same principles to the arrangements of the 
dining room. Evidently salt and pepper shakers, sugar 



ARRANGEMENT IN THE KITCHEN 



291 



bowls, napkins in use, and other articles used only at the 
table should be stored as near it as possible. But what 
about serving dishes ? If these are kept in the dining 
room, they must be taken to the kitchen, filled, brought 













'>: 


k^ 


Cabinet 
or Tabic 




^ 


'< 


9 








K 


Vanity 






X 














>k 


o 
o 

stove 


Drain 


1 ^ ■ 


Sink 




Drain 


V V 


N 1 

^ a; 


Serving 
Shelf 


Tabic China 








/ 1 


\ 









Another Well-arranged Kitchen 

back, used, carried out, washed, and brought back again 
for storage, only to be carried out to the kitchen again 
before using. This is evidently not efficiency. 

Planning of this sort is really very useful. Time studies 
are often made to determine which is the quickest way of 
carrying on a given process, or to see how much time is 



292 FOOD STUDY 

saved by a better arrangement. Noting the exact time 
it takes to do a given task by one method, and then the 
exact time necessary in another way, shows the difference 
in the two much more accurately than a mere impression 
of the difference. Surely, the ideal is not to spend one's 
whole time doing housework, but to do it as quickly and 
efficiently as possible, so that one may have time for the 
larger things of life. 

References 

Various cook books, on salads. 

"The Efficient Kitchen," by Georgie Boynton Child. 

''The New Housekeeping," by Christine Frederick. 

Questions 

1. Into what two general classes would you divide salads? 

2. Which kind of salads would it be appropriate to include in 
a hearty-dinner menu ? 

3. What are the chief points to consider in judging a salad ? 

4. What ways do you recommend for caring for celery which must 
be kept for a day or two ? 

5. Why is it worth while to learn to like salads ? 



LXII 
LUNCHEON 

Peepare and Serve a Luncheon. 

Decide on the type of luncheon you wish to prepare 
(formal or informal), on the number of people to be 
served, and on the amount you wish to spend. How 
will the season of the year and the time you can spend 
in preparation affect your choice ? Plan a menu accord- 
ingly. Prepare and serve. 



MENU- MAKING 293 

Menu-making 

Most of the principles of menu-making have already 
been stated, but it will be useful to bring them together, 
and sum up at this point. A great deal is said at the 
present time about balanced meals, and many lists of 
these are published. At first glance the student who 
knows that a '' balanced diet" furnishes a certain 
number of total calories, — with a certain percentage 
of these from fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, — and 
a given amount of mineral elements, is puzzled, be- 
cause these lists say nothing at all about amounts. It 
must be evident, then, that such meals are not accurately 
balanced in this sense. They are balanced in the sense 
that they furnish all the different elements required and 
in approximately the correct amounts. It is obvious that 
the housekeeper who tried to balance the diet for every 
member of the family would have an endless task and 
would seldom accomplish her end, because the various 
individuals would demand liberty to eat more or less of the 
foods provided and the accurate balance would be upset at 
once. 

For the healthy individual no such accurate plan- 
ning is necessary, but it is most important that meals be 
balanced in the other sense. First, meals should be con- 
sidered not individually, but in groups, meals for the day, 
for the week. Decide, for example, how much meat you 
intend to include in the diet of the week, and distribute it 
accordingly. Some people find themselves best suited 
with meat only two or three times a week ; others desire 
it at least once a day, while still others prefer it in smaller 
amounts even more frequently. But as meat is expensive 
and too much of it is probably not good for us, the skilled 
menu-maker will devise substitutes which will satisfy 



294 FOOD STUDY 

her family and gradually change their tastes. Remember 
that the food habits of children are much more easily 
changed than are those of adults. 

Having selected the meat or meat substitute, begin 
filling out the meal. Remember that it is wise to distrib- 
ute the fat so as not to have too much of it in any one 
meal as it is likely to cause digestive disturbances. In 
making combinations, do not include in the same meal 
dishes which furnish practically the same food principles. 
Rice should be substituted for potatoes and not served 
with them. Plan definitely to include vegetables and 
fruits for their mineral content. If meat and nutritive 
vegetables are to be served, fruits make a suitable dessert. 
If the dessert, on the other hand, is rich and high in food 
value, see that the vegetables are less starchy. If little 
meat is provided and the whole dinner seems too light, 
the meal might include a hearty soup or salad. Consider- 
ing the larger grouping, we should see that the food for the 
day runs evenly. If a lunch or supper is hearty, the 
dinner should be lighter than usual, or vice-versa. Alter- 
nate days of feast and famine do not give satisfaction. 

The suitability of the food must also be taken into 
account. People who work out of doors most of the time 
not only need more hearty food, but can digest it better 
than can those who are more closely confined and with 
more sedentary habits. For the latter, as for children, 
easily digested food must be provided. 

Last but by no means least, remember to provide variety. 
First, variety within the meal itself. Not only should the 
same flavor not appear twice in a meal, as chicken broth 
followed by chicken, or tomato soup followed by tomato 
salad, but as much variety as possible in food combinations 
should be sought. It is evident that a meal must not be 
composed too largely of liquids, and the dryness or watery 



MENU-MAKING 295 

character of the food should be considered. Boiled pota- 
toes are more acceptable with a meat with gravy than, 
for example, with Hamburg steak. Peas and beans at the 
same time not only provide about the same food elements 
in the same proportions, but are too much alike. ^ Two 
creamed vegetables at once are not so pleasing as^ if one 
were mashed or served in some other way. Variety in 
flavor is important. Two strong-flavored vegetables, as 
onions and turnips, are not acceptable at the same time ; 
on the other hand, if only mild-flavored foods are chosen, 
the whole is insipid. In food combinations, color, too, 
should be taken into account. Carrots and cranberries 
do not make a pleasing color harmony. 

Variety also demands that the same foods prepared^ in 
exactly the same way should not be served at successive 
meals. Moreover, the same food combinations should not 
be repeated too frequently. Do not always serve peas 
with lamb. Bread and butter are, of course, repeated, 
but there are innumerable ways of serving potatoes, 
although if you lived in some families you would think that 
there were but one or two at most. Left-overs may be made 
to appear like a new dish, or a meal may be skipped before 
serving the same article again. Some boarding-house 
keepers and some housewives, as well, make the mistake 
of running on a regular schedule so that it is possible to 
predict the meal beforehand. This is, of course, a grave 

error. . 

A warning should be given in regard to variety. The 
variety desirable is not the serving of too many kinds of 
food at one meal. Some people, and especially country 
hotel-keepers, serve at one meal all the vegetables that are 
to be had, and there is no variety possible for the next 
meal. Pickles of various sorts, different kinds of jam 
and preserves, appear all at once at each meal, and one 



296 POOD STUDY 

grows as tired of them all as if one had really eaten all 
the kinds, whereas one served at a time at different meals 
would have meant a new attractiveness. For this reason 
it is easy to tire of cafeteria or hotel meals where the food 
has to be selected before eating. 



Reference 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Office of Exp. Station. Circular 110. 
"Food Customs and Diet in American Homes." 



Questions 

1 . Why are the following menus faulty ? How would you improve 
them? 

(a) Split-pea soup (b) Bouillon 

Roast beef Bacon and eggs 

Mashed potatoes Buttered beets 

Baked beans Squash 

Banana salad Lettuce salad, French dressing 

Plum pudding Baked apple and whipped 

cream 
(c) Roast lamb 
Macaroni 
Creamed potatoes 
Boiled rice 

2. Make out balanced menus for a week's meals, providing for the 
use of left-overs, and introducing variety. State whether you con- 
sider the meals are low, medium, or high in price. 



APPENDIX 
Food Requirements 

A. For Adults 

1. Atwater and Benedict's Standard for Total Calories 
for average man weighing 154 pounds. 

Man sleeping requires 65 calories per hour 

Man sitting at rest 100 calories per hour 

Man at hght muscular exercise 170 calories per hour 

Man at active muscular exercise .... 290 calories per hour 

Man at severe muscular exercise • .- • • 450 calories per hour 

Man at very severe muscular exercise'. . . 600 calories per hour 

The average woman is supposed to require eight-tenths 
of the amount needed by the man. This is based on the 
fact that the average woman weighs eight-tenths of the 
weight of the average man. 

Using the figures given above, the daily requirement 
for a man of average weight with the given activity would 
be as follows : 

8 hours of sleep [65 cal. needed each hour] .... 520 calories 
6 hours of sitting at rest^ [100 cal. needed each hour] . 600 ca ories 
5 hours of Ught exercise ^ [170 cal. needed each hour] . 8o0 ca ones 
4 hours of active exercise [290 cal. needed each hour] . 1160 calories 
IJiour of severe muscular exercise « [450 cal. each] . _450^calories 
24 Total Calories needed per day 3580 

1 Eating, reading, writing, etc. 

2 Moderate walking, dressing, etc. 

3 Chopping wood, digging ditches, etc. 

297 



298 FOOD STUDY 

2. Atwater's Standard for Total Calories for adults 
under different conditions of activity. 

Man with hard muscular work 4150 

Man with moderately active work 3400 

Man at sedentary or woman with moderately active work . 2700 

Man without exercise or woman at light to moderate work . 2400 

3. Standards for Protein. 

How much protein is desirable is still unsettled. 
About fifteen per cent of the total calories should come 
from protein, according to Atwater; twelve per cent, ac- 
cording to Langworthy; eight and one-half per cent, 
according to Chittenden. 

Mothers' milk furnishes a little less than one-tenth of the 
total calories from protein. As this is by nature intended 
for the period of greatest growth, this is probably enough 
for any age, provided the protein is well adapted for use 
in body-building. 

4. Standard for Mineral Elements. 

This has not been determined so accurately as has 
the total calorie requirement. It is probable that there is 
a larger demand for mineral elements in proportion to the 
total calorie requirement during growth than in adult life. 
Calcium, iron, and phosphorus are the mineral elements 
which are least likely to be present in sufficient amounts. 
The requirement is usually stated as follows : 

Calcium oxide [CaO] 1.0 gram 

Iron [Fe] 015 gram 

Phosphoric acid [P2O5] 2,75 grams 

E. B. Forbes of the Ohio Experiment Station says : 
"Generally speaking, a high ash content of the food is 
desirable, since the organism is much better able to handle 
an excess of ash constituents than to meet a deficiency. 



APPENDIX 299 

It is good practice, therefore, to utilize the water in which 
foods are cooked, in so far as this can be done without 
detracting from the acceptabihty of the food, since the 
cooking water dissolves out much mineral matter. An 
abundance of mineral salts in the diet is also desirable, 
aside from nutritive considerations, because they con- 
tribute a laxative character to the food. Foods which 
are deficient in minerals are apt to be constipating. 

"A general character of the mineral nutrients of foods 
is the predominance of acid or basic elements. If the 
nutrients are present in the proportions in which they are 
needed the bases will predominate, and it is probably 
best that the bases should exceed the acid elements in the 
diet. It is true, however, that the organism has the ca- 
pacity to neutralize a considerable excess of acids. Meat, 
eggs, and cereals have acid ash; vegetables, milk, and 
most fruits have alkaline ash. The latter group should 
be liberally represented in the diet." 

Foods High in Calcium 

Milk and cheese [both especially rich], eggs, vegetables, 
fruits, hard water. 

Foods High in Iron 

Beef, eggs, beans, peas, and other green vegetables 
[especially spinach], raisins, figs, dates, prunes. 

Foods High in Phosphorus 

Milk and cheese, eggs, nuts, vegetables [especially peas 
and beans], cereal products with outer seed coats. 



300 



FOOD STUDY 



Table of Height and Weight 



A. For Men 

Symonds's Table of Height and Weight for Men at Different Ages. 

Based on 74,162 accepted Applicants for Life Insurance. 

(Medical Record, Sept. 5, 1908.) 



Ages 


16-24 


25-29 


30-34 


35-39 


40-44 


45-49 


50-54 


65-59 


60-64 


65-69 


5 ft. in. 


120 


125 


128 


131 


133 


134 


134 


134 


131 




1 in. 


122 


126 


129 


131 


1-34 


136 


136 


136 


134 




2 in. 


124 


128 


131 


133 


136 


138 


138 


138 


137 




3 in. 


127 


131 


134 


136 


139 


141 


141 


141 


140 


140 


4 in. 


131 


135 


138 


140 


143 


144 


145 


145 


144 


143 


5 in. 


134 


138 


141 


143 


146 


147 


149 


149 


148 


147 


6 in. 


138 


142 


145 


147 


150 


151 


153 


153 


153 


151 


7 in. 


142 


147 


150 


152 


155 


156 


158 


158 


158 


156 


Sin. 


146 


151 


154 


159 


160 


161 


163 


163 


163 


162 


9 in. 


150 


155 


159 


162 


165 


166 


167 


168 


168 


168 


10 in. 


154 


159 


164 


167 


170 


171 


172 


173 


174 


174 


11 in. 


159 


164 


169 


173 


175 


177 


177 


178 


180 


180 


6 ft. in. 


165 


170 


175 


179 


180 


183 


182 


183 


185 


185 


1 in. 


170 


177 


181 


185 


186 


189 


188 


189 


189 


189 


2 in. 


176 


184 


188 


192 


194 


196 


194 


194 


192 


192 


3 in. 


181 


190 


195 


200 


203 


204 


201 


198 







B. For Women 

Symonds's Table of Height and Weight for Women at Different Ages. 

Based on 58,855 accepted Applicants for Life Insurance. 

(McClure's Magazine, Jan. 1909.) 



Ages. 


15-19 


20-24 


25-29 


130-34 


35-39 


40-44 


45-49 


50-54 


55-59 


60-64 


4 ft. 11 in. 


111 


113 


115 


117 


119 


122 


125 


128 


128 


126 


5 ft. in. 


113 


114 


117 


119 


122 


125 


128 


130 


131 


129 


1 in. 


115 


116 


118 


121 


124 


128 


131 


133 


134 


132 


2 in. 


117 


118 


120 


123 


127 


132 


134 


137 


137 


136 


3 in. 


120 


122 


124 


127 


131 


135 


138 


141 


141 


140 


4 in. 


123 


125 


127 


130 


134 


138 


142 


145 


145 


144 


5 in. 


125 


128 


131 


135 


139 


143 


147 


149 


149 


148 


6 in. 


128 


132 


135 


137 


143 


146 


151 


153 


153 


152 


7 in. 


132 


135 


139 


143 


147 


150 


154 


157 


156 


155 


Sin. 


136 


140 


143 


147 


151 


155 


158 


161 


161 


160 


9 in. 


140 


144 


147 


151 


155 


159 


163 


166 


166 


165 


10 in. 


144 


147 


151 


155 


159 


163 


167 


170 


170 


169 



APPENDIX 



301 



C. For Children 



Age 


Calories per Pound of 
Body Weight 


Calories per Day 


1-2 
2-5 

6-9 
10-13 
14-17 


45-40 
40-35 
35-30 
30-25 
25-20 


900-1200 
1200-1500 
1500-1800 
1800-2200 
2200-3000 



D. For Children 

I 

Sill's Table of Weights of Children from Birth to the Fifth Year. 

(New York Medical Journal, January, 1911.) 

From Tables by Koplik. 



Age Weight 

At birth 7.5 

6 months 15.0 

1 year 21.0 

o [boys 30.3 

^^^^^Mgirls 29.2 

o [boys 34.9 

^y^^^Mgirls 33.1 

. [boys 37.9 

^^""^Mgirls 36.3 



302 



POOD STUDY 



D. For Children {Continued) 

II 

Average Weight and Height of Boys at Different Ages. 

[Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 

Part I, 1910, Health and Education.] 



Ht 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


in. 


yrs. 
35 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


39 




















40 


38 


36 






























41 


39 


39 






























42 


41 


41 






























43 


42 


42 


42 




























44 


46 


44 


43 




























45 




46 


46 


45 


























46 




48 


48 


48 


























47 






49 


50 


50 
























48 






54 


53 


53 


53 






















49 








54 


55 


55 






















50 








57 


58 


58 






















51 








59 


60 


60 


61 




















52 










62 


62 


61 


63 


















53 










62 


65 


65 


67 


67 


67 














54 










65 


68 


68 


70 


71 


71 














55 












69 


71 


75 


75 


76 














56 












71 


77 


76 


78 


79 


79 












57 














77 


79 


80 


82 


82 












58 














78 


84 


85 


86 


87 












59 
















84 


86 


90 


91 












60 
















85 


91 


94 


95 


90 










61 


















98 


97 


99 


96 










62 


















99 


103 


106 


104 


104 








63 


















100 


107 


112 


112 


110 


118 






64 




















114 


118 


120 


117 


120 


120 




65 




















122 


119 


122 


122 


120 


126 


125 


66 






















121 


125 


125 


126 


129 


139 


67 






















128 


129 


128 


131 


134 


132 


68 






















133 


133 


130 


136 


136 


136 


69 






















134 


136 


139 


139 


139 


139 


70 






















136 


140 


143 


143 


144 


145 


71 
























140 


146 


146 


146 


164 


72 






























149 


154 


73 
































165 



APPENDIX 



303 



D. For Children (Continued) 



III 

Table of Weight and Height of Girls at Different Ages. 
[Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 

Part I, 1910.] 



Ht 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


in. 


yrs. 


JTS. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


3TS. 


yrs. 


yrs. 


39 


34 
































40 


37 


35 






























41 


38 


37 






























42 


41 


39 


39 




























43 


41 


41 


42 




























44 


45 


43 


44 


42 


























45 




45 


45 


45 


























46 




48 


47 


47 


























47 






50 


49 


49 
























48 








51 


51 
























49 








53 


53 


54 






















50 








56 


56 


57 






















51 










59 


58 


60 




















52 










63 


62 


62 


63 


















53 












64 


63 


66 


65 
















54 












69 


68 


69 


68 
















55 














70 


71 


73 
















56 














75 


75 


76 


78 














57 
















78 


80 


83 














58 
















83 


86 


88 


89 












59 
















88 


94 


93 


97 


100 










60 
















94 


99 


96 


100 


104 


109 


103 


99 


99 


61 


















104 


100 


102 


109 


109 


106 


105 


111 


62 




















104 


106 


111 


110 


107 


111 


114 


63 




















107 


109 


116 


110 


112 


113 


114 


64 




















112 


118 


116 


117 


114 


119 


115 


65 






1 












114 


118 


121 


125 


120 


123 


125 



TABLE OF FUEL VALUES 

The approximate weight in ounces and the exact weight 
in grams of the amount of each food necessary to furnish 
100 calories of heat are shown in the following tables, as 
well as the number of these calories which come from pro- 
tein. 

If it is desired to add other foods to the list, divide the 
number of calories furnished by a pound ^ of the food into 
1600 to find the number of ounces, into 45,364 to find the 
number of grams. To find the number of calories from 
protein, multiply the weight in grams of the 100-calorie 
portion by the per cent^ of protein in the food, and then 
multiply by 4. 

In the table, A. P. means "As Purchased" ; E. P. means 
"Edible Portion." 



Name of Food 


Weight of 100-Calorie 
Portion 


Approximate 

Number of 

Calories from 

Protein 




Oz. iapprox.) 


Grams 


Berries 








Blackberries .... 


6 


171 


9 


Blueberries .... 


4i 

^2 


131 


3 


Cranberries .... 


7i 

' 2 


215 


3 


Currants 


6 


175 


10 


Raspberries .... 
Strawberries .... 


6 
9 


164 
256 


7 
10 



One cup of berries weighs about 5^^ oz. 

1 See U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Office of Experiment Station. 
Bulletin No. 28. "Chemical Composition of American Food 
Materials." 

2 If exact results are desired, re-calculate the fuel value per 
pound, using factors 4, 4, 9, instead of 4.1, 4.1, and 9.3 used in 
Bulletin. 

304 



APPENDIX 



305 



Name of Food 


Weight of 100-Calorie 
Portion 


Approximate 

Number of 

Calories from 

Protein 




Oz. (approx.) 


Grams 


Biscuits (see also Crackers) 
Beaten 

Rolls, white (water) 


3 
4 

u 


21 
36 


10 
13 



One medium-sized roll weighs about 2 oz. 
One large sweet roll weighs about 2| oz. 



Bread (see also muffins) 
Boston Brown 
Graham 
Rye . . . 
White . . . 
Whole Wheat 



u 



43 
38 
39 
38 
41 



9 
14 
14 
14 
16 



One thin slice of home-made bread weighs about 1 oz. 
One thin slice of bakers' bread weighs about ^ oz. 
One slice Boston brown bread weighs about 2^ oz. 



Butter (see Fats) 
Cereals (see also Bread) 

Corn Meal . 

Corn Flakes . 

Cornstarch 

Farina . . 

Flour, Graham 

Flour, Rye 

Flour, White 

Flour, Whole Wheat 

Hominy, cooked 

Macaroni, uncooked 

Oatmeal, Rolled Oats 

Rice, uncooked . . 

Shredded Wheat . 

Tapioca .... 

Wheat, Cracked 



One cup of corn meal weighs about 5 oz. 
One tablespoon of corn starch weighs about ^ 
One cup of cereal weighs about 8 oz. 
One shredded wheat biscuit weighs about 1 oz. 
One cup of white flour weighs about 4| oz. 
One tablespoon of white flour weighs about I oz 



28 


10.5 


28 


11 


28 


— 


28 


12 


28 


13 


29. 


8 


28 


12 


27 


15 


28 


9 


28 


15 


28 


16 


29 


9 


27 


12 


28 


— 


28 


12 



oz. 



306 



FOOD STUDY 



Name 


OF Food 


Weight of 100-Calorie 
Portion 


Approximate 

Number of 

Calories from 

Protein 




Oz. (approx.) 


Grams 


Cheese 
Cheddar 
Cottage 




3 
4 

3i 


22 

91 


24 

76 



One and one-half inch cube of cheese weighs about 1 oz. 
One tablespoon of grated cheese weighs about I oz. 



Chocolate (see Sweets) 
Cocoa (see Sweets) 
Crackers 

Graham .... 

Oyster 

Saltines .... 

Soda 

Water 



24 


10 


24 


11 


23 


10 


24 


10 


25 


12 



Four square wafers weigh about 1 oz. 



Cream (see Milk) 
Desserts (see Sweets) 
Eggs 

Whole E.P. . . 

White .... 

Yolk .... 



68 
196 

28 



36 

97 
17 



One egg without shell weighs about If oz. 
One egg white weighs about 1 oz. 
One egg yolk weighs about | oz. 



Fats (see Oil) 
Butter . . 
Cottolene . . 
Lard 

Oleomargarine 
Salt pork . . 



13 
11 
11 
13 
13 



0.5 



0.5 
1 



One tablespoon of butter weighs about 
One pat of butter weighs about ^ oz. 
One cup of butter weighs about 8 oz. 



I oz. 



APPENDIX 



307 



Name of Food 


Weight of 100-Calorie 
Portion 


Approximate 
Number of 




Oz. (approx.) 


Grams 


Calories fp.om 
Protein 


Fish 

Blue, E.P 

Butter, E.P 

Cod, fresh, dressed . 
Cod, salt, E.P. . . . 
HaHbut, Steak, E.P. . 
Herring, smoked . . 
Lobster, canned 
Oysters, E.P. . . . 
Salmon, dressed, E.P. . 

Sardines 

Whitefish 


4 

2 

71 

31 

3 

U 

4i 

7 

If 

U 

2| 


113 

59 

216 

126 

82 

35 

119 

198 

49 

37 

67 


88 
42 
96 
97 
61 
51 
86 
49 
43 
34 
61 



One serving of halibut or whitefish weighs about 3 oz. 
One cup of oysters weighs about 6 oz. 



Flour (see Cereals) 
Fruits (see also Berries) 

Apples, A. P. . . 

Apples, dried 

Apricots, A. P. 

Bananas, E.P. 

Cherries, fresh, E.P 

Cherries, candied 

Cherries, canned 

Currants, fresh, A.P 

Currants, dried 

Dates, A.P. 

Pigs, dried 

Grapes, A.P. 

Grape Juice 

Grape Fruit 

Lemons, A.P. 

Lemons, E.P. 

Muskmelons . 

Olives, A.P. . 

Oranges, A.P. 

Oranges, E.P. 

Peaches, A.P. 

Peaches, canned 

Pears, A.P. . 



6^ 

31 

4i 

1 

4 

61 

1 

u 
u 

5 

Sh 

8 

lU 

8 
18 
U 
9i 

7 

lOi 

7h 

6i 



212 

34 

184 

101 

128 

29 

112 

175 

31 

32 

32 

138 

100 

220 

324 

226 

510 

46 

268 

195 

297 

213 

177* 



3 
3 
8 
5 
9 

0.5 
5 
11 
3 
3 
5 
5 

7 
9 
9 
6 
2 
6 
6 
7 
6 
4 



308 



FOOD STUDY 



Name of Food 


Weight of 100-Calorie 
Portion 


Approximate 

Number of 

Calories from 

Protein 




Oz. (approx.) 


Grams 


Fruits (see also Berries) 
Pears, canned . . . 
Pineapples, E.P. . . 
Pineapples, canned . 

Plums 

Prunes, dried, A.P. 

Raisins, A.P 

Raisins, E.P 

Rhubarb, E.P. . . . 
Watermelons, A.P. . . 


5 

8i 
2i 
4 

u 
u 

1 

m 

281 


132 

232 

65 

118 

39 

32 

29 

433 

800 


2 
4 
1 
5 
3 
3 
3 
3 
5 



One medium-sized apple weighs about 5 oz. 

One large banana weighs about 5 oz. 

Three dates weigh about 1 oz. 

One fig weighs about 1 oz. 

Five olives weigh about 1 oz. 

One large orange weighs about 6 oz. 

One medium- sized peach weighs about 4 oz. 

Three prunes weigh about 1 oz. 

One cup of raisins weighs about 4 oz. 



Gelatine 


1 


27 


100 


Meats 

Bacon, smoked . 


1 

2 


16 


7 


Beef, corned .... 


u 


34 


21 


Beef, dried .... 


2 


56 


67 


Beef, Heart .... 


n 


39 


25 


Beef, Liver .... 


31 


78 


64 


Beef, Porterhouse Steak 


n 


37 


32 


Beef, Roast .... 


1 


29 


26 


Beef, Round, lean . . 


2i 


64 


55 


Beef, Sirloin .... 


u 


41 


31 


Beef, Sweetbreads . . 


2 


57 


38 


Beef, Tenderloin . . 


u 


35 


23 


Beef, Tongue, E.P. . 


2i 


63 


48 


Chicken (broilers), E.P. 


3i 


93 


80 


Fowl, E. P 


n 


45 


35 


Ham, fresh, medium fat 


1 


31 


19 


Ham, smoked, medium 








fat 


4 J- 


24 


16 


Ham, deviled . . . 


1 


26 


20 



APPENDIX 



309 





Weight of 100-Calorie 


Approximate 




Portion 


Number of 


Name of Food 






Calories from 
Protein 




Oz. {approx.) 


Grams 


Meats 








Lamb, Chops, broiled, 








E.P 


1 


28 


24 


Lamb, Leg, medium fat. 








E.P 


u 


44 


34 


Mutton, Leg, medium 








fat, E.P. . . . 


u 


41 


32 


Pork, Chops, medium 








fat, E.P 


u 


34 


22 


Pork, Tenderloin . . 


If 


52 


39 


Sausage, Pork . . r 


3 

4 


22 


12 


Sausage, Pork and Beef 


u 


35 


17 


Sausage, Wienerwurst . 


u 


32 


36 


Turkey, E.P. ... 


u 


34 


29 


Veal, Cutlet, E.P. . . 


2i 


66 


13 


Veal, Leg, medium fat, 








E.P 


2i 


62 


50 



Two shces of broiled bacon weigh about | oz. 
One serving of meat weighs about 3-4 oz. 



Milk 








Buttermilk .... 


91 


280 


30 


Condensed, sweetened . 


1 


31 


11 


Condensed, 








unsweetened 


2 


59 


23 


Cream, thin .... 


1 a 


51 


5 


Cream, thick . . . 


1 


26 


2 


Skimmed 


9^ 


273 


37 


Whey 


13i 


375 


15 


Whole 


5 


145 


19 



One cup (i pint) of milk weighs about Sh oz. 

One cup of cream weighs about 8 oz. 

One tablespoon of whipped cream weighs about I 



oz. 



Molasses (see Sweets) 








Muffins (see Biscuits) 








Nuts 








Almonds, shelled . . 


1 

2 


15 


13 


Butternuts, E.P. . . 


i 


15 


17 


Chestnuts, E.P. . . 


n 


41 


10 



310 



FOOD STUDY 



Name of Food 


Weight of 100-Calorie 
Portion 


Approximate 

Number op 

Calories prom 

Protein 




Oz. (approx.) 


Grams 


Nuts 

Coeoanut, fresh . . 
Cocoanut, prepared 
Peanuts, E.P. . . . 
Walnuts, California, 
E.P 


1 

2 

3 
4 

1 
2 


17 
15 
18 

14 


4 

4 

19 

10 



er 



187 
102 
196 
225 
735 



One cup of shelled nuts weighs about 5-5 1 oz. 

Oil, OHve I i 1 11 

One tablespoon of oil weighs about j oz. 

Pies (see Sweets) 
Puddings (see Sweets) 
Rolls (see Biscuits) 
Soups, canned 

Celery, Cream of 

Corn, Cream of . 

Pea, Cream of . 

Tomato . . . 

Vegetable . . . 
Sweets 

Cake, Chocolate lay 

Cake, Frosted . 

Cake, Fruit . . 

Cake, Gingerbread 

Cake, Sponge 

Chocolate . . 

Cocoa .... 

Doughnuts . . 

Fig bars . . . 

Gingersnaps . . 

Honey .... 

Macaroons . . 

Marmalade, Orange 

Molasses . . 

Pie, Apple 

Pie, Custard . 

Pie, Lemon . 

Pie, Mince 

Pie, Squash . 



61 
3^ 
7 
9 
26 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 

1 

2 
3 
4 
3 
4 

1 

3 
4 

1 
1 
1 

u 

2 

u 



16 
12 

28 
18 

85 



28 


7 


27 


6 


27 


6 


27 


6 


25 


6 


16 


8 


20 


17 


23 


6 


28 


5 


25 


6 


31 


0.5 


24 


6 


29 


0.5 


35 


3 


37 


5 


56 


10 


39 


6 


35 


8 


56 


10 



APPENDIX 



311 



Name of Food 



Sweets 

Pudding, Apple Tapioca 
Pudding, Cornstarch 
Pudding, Lemon Jelly 
Pudding, Rice . . 

Sugar 

Syrup, Maple 
Vanilla Wafers . 



Weight of 100-Calorie 
Portion 



Oz. iapprox.)] 



Grams 



82 
45 
78 
51 
25 
23 
23 



Approximate 

Number of 

Calories from 

Protein 



1 
12 
5 
12 


6 



One square of chocolate weighs about 1 oz. 

One tbsp. of cocoa weighs about I oz. 

One medium-sized doughnut weighs about 1^ oz. 

One tbsp. of honey weighs about 1 oz. 

One cup of molasses weighs about 11 oz. 

One serving of pie weighs about 5| oz. 

One lump of sugar weighs about I oz. 

One tbsp. of sugar weighs about ^ oz. 

One cup of sugar weighs about 7| oz. 

One cup of maple syrup weighs about 11 oz. 



Vegetables 

Asparagus, fresh, E.P 
Asparagus, cooked, 

E.P 

Beans, baked, canned 
Beans, dried . . . 
Beans, Lima, canned 
Beans, String, canned 
Beans, String, fresh 
Cabbage, E.P. 
Carrots, E.P. 
CauUflower, E.P 
Celery, E.P. . 
Corn, canned 
Corn, green, E.P 
Cucumbers 
Egg plant . 
Lettuce 
Mushrooms 
Onions 
Parsnips 



16 

71 

2f 

1 

4i 
17i 

8^ 
lU 

7f 
lU 
19 

31 

31 
20i 

181 
71 
7i 
5^ 



450 

213 
78 
29 
130 
488 
241 
317 
221 
328 
540 
102 
99 
575 
358 
524 
223 
205 
154 



33 

18 
21 
26 
21 
22 
22 
20 
10 
24 
24 
12 
12 
18 
17 
25 
31 
13 
10 



312 



FOOD STUDY 



Name op Food 




Weight op 100-Calorie 
Portion 


Approximate 

Number of 

Calories from 

Protein 




Oz. {approx.) 


Grams 


Vegetables 

Peas, canned . . 
Peas, fresh . . 
Potatoes, Chips 
Potatoes, Sweet, E. 
Potatoes, White, E. 
Pumpkins, E.P. . 
Radishes, E.P. . 
Spinach 

Squash, E.P. . . 
Tomatoes, fresh 
Tomatoes, canned 
Turnips, E.P. . 


P. 
P. 


6^ 

3 
4 

21 
4i 

131 

12 

14| 
7^ 

• 4 

15f 
9 


181 
100 
17 
81 
120 
389 
341 
416 
217 
439 
443 
254 


26 
28 
5 
6 
11 
16 
18 
35 
12 
16 
21 
13 



One-half pint of baked beans weighs about 7j oz. 

One serving of most vegetables weighs about three to four 

ounces. 
One serving of celery, lettuce, or radishes weighs about 

one ounce. 






SUPPLEMENTARY LABORATORY LESSONS 

I. Dried fruit. Baked bananas. Baked apples. 

IL Peach butter. Canned tomatoes. 

in. Apple and mint jelly. 

IV. Chili sauce. Mustard pickles. 

V. Spiced prunes. Watermelon-rind pickle. 

VI. Potatoes in the half shell. 

VII. Marguerite salad. Shirred eggs. 

VIII. Scrambled eggs with or without milk. 

IX. Date tapioca. Chocolate tapioca, 

X. Turkish Pilaf . Compote of rice and pears. 

XL Tapioca cream. Brown-bread brewis. 

XII. Iced tea. Cinnamon crackers. 

XIII. Fruit punch. Percolated and drip coffee. 

XIV. Iced cocoa or cocoa shake. 
XV. Frappe. Apricot ice. 

XXIV. Potatoes au gratin. Creamed eggs. 

XXV. Rice croquettes. Egg cutlets. 

XXVI. Baked macaroni and cheese. 

XXVII. Creamed celery. 

XXIX. Cauliflower. 

XXX. Brussels sprouts. Kale. 

XXXIII. Cannelon of beef, or beef loaf. 

XXXIV. Breaded chops. Franconia potatoes. 
XXXV. Swiss steak. Braised beef. 

XXXVII. Noodles. Beef tea. 

313 



314 



FOOD STUDY 



XXXVIII. 

XLI. 

XLII. 

XLIV. 

XLV. 

XLVI. 

XLVII. 

XLVIII. 

XLIX. 

L. 

LI. 

LIL 

LIII. 
LIV. 
LV. 
LVI, 
LVII. 
LIX. 

LX. 



Irish moss. Agar-agar. Jellied meat. 

Double mold. 
Fried smelts. Creamed codfish. Finnan 

haddie. Planked fish. 
Scalloped oysters. Panned oysters. Oysters 

with bacon. 
Cream puffs. Fruit puffs. 
Celery fritters. Timbale cases. 
Waffles. Johnny cake. 
Hot-water sponge cake. Angel cake. 
Date muffins. Sally Lunn. Boston brown 

bread. 
Chocolate cake. White cake. Gold cake. 

Boiled frosting. 
Dutch apple cake. Cinnamon roly-poly. 
Hermits, or other drop cookies. 
Raisin bread. Nut bread. Baking-powder 

nut bread. 
Finger rolls. Swedish tea ring, etc. 
Custard pie. Lemon cream pie. Fruit tarts. 
Raised doughnuts. Sour-milk doughnuts. 
Mousse. Parfait. 
Frozen pudding. Spanish cream. 
Cottage cheese and walnut sandwich. 

Maids of Honor. 
Cheese balls. Cheese fondu. Cheese 

straws. 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Acetylene, 102. 
Agar-agar, 193. 
Albumin, 183, 274. 

in meat, 170. 
Alcohol, grain, 102, 246, 250. 

wood, 102. 
Apple, coddled, 2. 

fritters, 220. 

jelly, 13. 

sauce, 2. 

tapioca, 57. 

Baby-feeding, 274. 
Bacon, broiled, 119. 

fat, 261. 
Bacteria, 21-24, 25-29, 247, 248. 

in meat, 181, 182. 

in milk, 266, 270-271, 275. 
Baking, 219. 

Baking powder, 226-229, 237- 
239. 

and soda, 229. 
Baking powder biscuit, 237-239, 

253. 
Beef, 171. 

broth, 189. 

chipped, 130. 

cuts of, 177. 

roast, 175. 

steak, 176. 

stew, 180. 

tea, 189-191. 



Bread, 244-253. 

bakers', 253. 

baking, 250. 

composition of, 251. 

digestibility of, 252. 

graham, 250. 

kneading of, 245, 246-247. 

mixing, 245-248. 

oatmeal, 250. 

score card for, 252. 

spoon bread, 183. 
Breakfast foods, buying, 55. 

classification of, 54. 

cooking of, 51, 55. 

cost, 54, 62-63. 

crisping of, 62. 
Breakfasts, 67, 122. 
Butter, 260, 261, 262-266. 

butterine, 265. 

digestibility of, 261. 

in cake, 236. 

making, 263. 

oleomargarine, 265. 

rancidity, 264-265. 
Butterine, 265. 
Buttermilk, 265-266. 

Cake, 227, 233, 235-236, 255. 

making, 235-236, 255. 

plain, 233. 

sponge cake, 227. 
Calories, 53, 153-157, 304-312. 



317 



318 



INDEX 



Candies, 162-163. 
Canning, 7, 8, 12. 
Carbohydrates, 163-167. 
caloric value, 154. 
See also Cellulose, Pectin, 
Starch, Sugars. 
Carrots, creamed, 139. 
Casein, 274. 
Cellulose, 15, 34, 37, 63-64, 133, 

278. 
Cereals : 

composition of, 52, 54. 
corn meal, 232. 
corn pudding, 176. 
Indian pudding, 62. 
mineral elements in, 299. 
mush, fried, 123. 
rice, boiled and steamed, 57. 
rice pudding, 62. 
spoon bread, 183. 
See also Breakfast Foods. 
Cheese, composition of, 282. 
cottage cheese, 277. 
digestibility of, 284. 
effect of extreme heat on, 281. 
manufacture, 283. 
mineral elements in, 299. 
pudding, 281. 
souffle, 132. 
wafers, 79. 
Welsh rabbit, 281. 
Chicken, 198-201. 
Children, food for, 277-280. 
foods bad for, 277-279. 
food requirements for, 280, 

301. 
habits of drinking, 280. 
habits of eating, 279. 
Chocolate, 84-85, 236. 

sauce, 135. 
Coal, 100. 



Cocoa, chocolate and, 83-85. 

composition of, 85. 

effects of, 85. 

for children, 277. 

making, 83. 
Coffee, 79-82. 

buying, 81. 

composition of, 81. 

effects of, 81-82. 

for children, 277. 

making, 79. 
Combustion, 98-103. 
Condiments, 86-89, 278. 
Cookies, gingersnaps, 241. 

oatmeal, 83. 

sugar, 241. 

See also Wafers. 
Cornstarch, manufacture of, 
136-138. 

mold, 135. 

thickening power of, 135. 
Cream, 262. 

whipped cream pudding, 263. 
Cream soups, 142, 261. 
Croquettes, 132. 
Croutons, 142. 
Cucumber pickles, 20. 
Custard, baked, 267. 

boiled, 267. 

frozen, 268. 

junket, 277. 

Dining Room, 214-216, 287-292. 
Dinners, 194, 213. 
Doughnuts, 258. 
Drafts, 104-107. 
Dumplings, 180. 

Eggs, 47-50. 
boiled, 40-41. 
buying, 48. 



INDEX 



319 



Eggs — Continued 

composition of, 47-48, 262, 
282. 

cooking temperature of egg 
white, 40. 

cost, 48. 

digestibility, 49-50. 

fat in, 262. 

freshness, 39, 48. 

milk and, 267. 

mineral elements in, 299. 

omelets, 122-123. 

poached, 46-47. 

preservation of, 49. 

scrambled, 115. 

solubility of egg white, 46. 

stuffed, 41. 

tests for freshness of, 39. 
Electricity, 103. 
Energy, 153, 154. 

total daily requirements, 154- 
155, 280, 297-299, 301. 
Extractions, 170. 
Extracts, 89. 

Fat, caloric value, 154. 

clarification of, 258. 

composition of foods rich in, 
259. 

cost, 261. 

digestibility of, 260, 261, 274. 

emulsions of, 285. 

in butter, 262-266. 

in eggs, 262. 

in meat, 170. 

in milk, 268, 270, 274. 

in pastry, 254, 256. 
Tireless cookers, 116-117, 149. 
Fish, baked, 202. 

boiled, with egg sauce, 203. 

buying, 205-206. 



chowder, 208. 

composition of, 203-205. 

croquettes, 132. 

digestibility, 206. 

effect of different ways of 
boiling, 203. 

scalloped, 203. 
Flies, 24. 

Flour, bread, 130-131, 133-134, 
234-235. 

composition of, 133. 

kinds of, 231-232. 

graham, 231. 

mixtures, 217-219. 

manufacture of, 130-131, 133- 
134. 

pastry, 234-235, 255-256. 

rye, 232. 

weight of, 231. 

white wheat, 231-232. 
Food, daily amount necessary, 
152-157, 280, 297, 299, 
301. 

composition of, 155-157. 

cost of, 157. 

for children, 277-280, 301. 

fuel value of, 155-157, 304- 
312. 

lacking in mineral elements, 
152. 

laxative effect of food, 5, 64. 

mineral elements in, 152, 299. 

preservation, 20, 28, 29, 270. 
Freezing, 90-94. 

See also under Ice, Ice Cream, 
Sherbet. 
Fritters, apple, 220. 
Frostings, 234. 
Fruit peel, candied, 95. 
Fruit, buying, 3, 6. 

canning, 7, 8, 12. 



320 



INDEX 



Fruit — Continued 

composition of, 3, 14-16. 

cooking of, 2. 

cost of, 3, 6. 

digestibility of, 5. 

for children, 278. 

laxative effect of, 5. 

mineral elements in, 5, 152, 
299. 

nutritive value, 4, 5. 

pickling of, 20, 25. 

spoiling of, 1, 7, 8-12. 
Fuel value of food. See Food, 

FUEL VALUE OF. 

Fuels, 98-103. 
acetylene, 102. 
alcohols, 102. 
coal, 100. 
gas, 101-102. 
gasolene, 102. 
in body, 153. 
kerosene, 101. 

Garbage, 24. 

Gas, 101-102. 

Gas stoves, 109-113, 117. 

Gasolene, 102. 

Gelatine, 191-194. 

Bavarian cream, 192. 

from meat proteins, 170. 

in soups, 189. 

Irish moss, 194. 

jellied prunes, 213. 

lemon jelly, 192. 

snow pudding, 192. 

Spanish cream, 195. 

vegetable, 193-194. 
Gingerbread, 238, 261. 
Gingersnaps, 241. 
Gluten, 130-131, 185, 246-247. 
Greens, cooking of, 151. 



Griddlecakes, sour milk, 224. 
sweet milk, 226-227. 

Heat, conduction of, 115. 

convection of, 115. 

radiation of, 114. 
Height and weight, 300-303. 

of boys, 302. 

of children, 301. 

of girls, 303. 

of men, 300. 

of women, 300. 
Hot-water systems, 119-120. 
Hundred-calorie portions, 157, 
304-312. 

Ice, lemon, 91. 

Ice cream, frozen custard, 268. 
Philadelphia, 263. 

Jelly, covering, 17. 

apple, 13. 

grape, 13. 

making, 15, 19. 

principles of making, 15-18. 

prunes, 213-214. 

repeated extractions for, 17, 
19. 

storing, 18. 

sugar in, 16, 19. 
Jellying, tests for, 13. 

Kerosene, 101. 

Kitchen arrangements, 287-292. 
Kitchen ware, selection of, 120- 
121. 

Laboratory Lessons, supple- 
mentary, 313-314. 
Lamb, 172-173. 
Leavening, air, 221, 256. 



INDEX 



321 



Leavening — Continued 

baking powder, 226, 228-229. 

carbon dioxide, 221. 

in cake, 236. 

in pastry, 256. 

principles of, 220. 

soda, 222-225. 

water vapor, 221, 256. 

yeast, 221, 240-243, 246, 247, 
248. 
Luncheon, 292. 

Macaroni, 131, 136. 
Marguerites, 95. 
Marshmallow wafers, 74. 
Meals, balanced, 293. 

See also Menu-making. 
Meat, beef, 171. 

beef, chipped, 130. 

beef, cuts of, 177. 

beef, mineral elements in, 299. 

beef, roast, 175. 

beef stew, 180. 

beefsteak, 176. 

beef tea, 189-191. 

broth, 189. 

buying, 171. 

care of, 174. 

chicken, 198-201. 

composition of, 169-170. 

consumption of, 181, 187. 

cooking of, 175-176, 179-180. 

cuts of, 171-174, 176-178. 

dangers from, 181-182. 

digestibility of, 201-202. 

extract, 189-191. 

for children, 279. 

inspection, 181-182. 

in the dietary, 293-294. 

juice, 190. 

lamb, 172-173. 



left-overs, 183. 
left from soup, 191. 
meat cakes, 168. 
mutton, 172-173. 
pork, 173. 
poultry, 200-201. 
soups, 188-191. 
structure, 168-170. 
veal, 171-172. 
Menu-making, 293. 
Meters, gas, 111-112. 
Micro-organisms, bacteria, 21- 

24, 181, 182, 247, 248, 270- 

271. 
conditions favoring growth, 

25-29. 
molds, 8-12, 25-29. 
yeasts, 21-24, 25-29, 221, 

240-243, 246, 247, 248, 

253. 
Milk, acids and, 272-275. 
boiling, 275. 
buttermilk, 265-266. 
certified, 271. 
composition of, 268-269. 
dangers from, 270-271. 
effect of heat on curd, 276. 
- eggs and, 267. 
fat in, 274. 
for children, 278. 
mineral elements in, 274- 

275, 299. 
pasteurized, 271. 
proteins in, 274. 
sour, uses of, 277. 
souring of, 275. 
value in diet, 275. 
Mineral elements : 

acidity and alkalinity, 66. 
daily requirement of, 157, 

298-299. 



322 



INDEX 



Mineral elements — Continued 

foods lacking in, 152. 

in cereals, 299. 

in cheese, 299. 

in eggs, 299. 

in foods, 152, 299. 

in fruits, 5, 152, 299. 

in milk, 274-275, 299. 

in nuts, 299. 

in potatoes, 37. 

in vegetables, 146, 149, 152, 
299. 

in water, 299. 

use of, in body, 65. 
Molasses, 225. 
Molds, 8-12, 25-29. 
Muffins, 230. 
Mush, fried, 123. 
Mutton, 172-173. 
Myosin, 170. 

Nuts, composition of, 184. 
mineral elements in, 299. 

Oils, 258-261. 
Oleomargarine, 265. 
Omelets, 122-123. 
Oysters, 207-212. 

composition of, 209. 

cooking of, 207, 

cultivation of, 210-211. 

stew, 207. 

Pastry, 254-256. 

digestibility of, 256. 
Peaches, sweet pickled, 25. 

canned, 7. 
Peas, creamed, 139. 
Pectin, 13, 15, 19-20. 
Pickles, cucumber, 20. 

sweet pickled peaches, 25. 



Pies, apple, 255. 
Pop-overs, 216-217, 221. 
Pork, 173. 
Potatoes, boiled, 30-31. 

buying of, 36. 

composition of, 31, 33, 35. 

digestibility, 37. 

mashed, 31. 

mineral elements in, 34, 37. 

preparation for the table, 36, 
37. 

salad, 119. 

scalloped, 98. 

stuffed, 104. 

sweet, 38. 
Poultry, 200-201. 
Preservatives, 20, 28-29, 270. 
Pressure cooker, 41. 
Protein, 34, 152, 183-187. 

calorie value, 154. 

daily requirement, 155, 186- 
187, 298. 

in meat, 170. 

in milk, 274. 
Pudding, cheese, 281. 

chocolate bread, 108. 

corn pudding, 176. 

Indian pudding, 62. 

rice, 62. 

rice, boiled, 57. 

whipped cream, 263. 

Receptions, 95-97. 

Refrigerators, 117. 

Rice, boiled and steamed, 57. 

Rice pudding, 62. 

Rolls, Parker House, 249. 

Saccharin, 166. 
Salads, 287. 
potato, 119. 



INDEX 



323 



Salad dressings, boiled, 286. 

French, 151. 

mayonnaise, 285-286. 

sour cream, 151. 
Sandwiches, 96. 
Sauce, chocolate, 135. 

egg, 203. 

fat in, 268. 

tomato, 136. 

white, 129, 132, 142. 
Serving, 195-198. 
Sherbet, lemon, 91. 

lemon milk, 273. 
Soda, 222-225. 

baking powder and, 229. 

cream of tartar and, 229. 

molasses and, 225. 

sour milk and, 189. 
Souffle, cheese, 132. 
Soup, beef broth, 189. 

beef tea, 189-191. 

chowder, 208. 

cream of celery, 142. 

cream of onion, 146. 

cream of potato, 142. 

cream of tomato, 273. 

gelatine in, 189. 

principle of cream soup, 142. 

split pea, 195. 

tomato, 213. 
Sour milk, 223-224, 229. 

effect of heat on, 276. 

griddlecakes, 224, 
Sponge cake, 227. 
Spoon bread, 183. 
Starch, 56,57-61, 64, 128-129. 

cooking of, 59. 

cornstarch, 135. 

digestion of, 59-60. 

effect of moist heat on, 139. 

manufacture of, 57. 



mixing with liquids, 137. 

tapioca, 56. 
Stoves, coal, 105-107. 

fireless cookers, 116-117. 

gas, 109-113, 117. 
Sugar, 165-166, 278. 

beet, 160-161. 

candies, 162-163, 278. 

cane, 160-161. 

composition of foods contain- 
ing sugar, 164. 

crystallization of, 163. 

digestion of, 161, 166. 

in baby-feeding, 274, 278. 

in cake, 236. 

in milk, 274. 

manufacture of, 160-161. 

stages in sugar cooking, 162. 

test for, 159. 
Syrup, 123. 

Table-Manners, 123-128. 
Table-setting, 67-72. 
Tapioca, apple, 57. 
Tea, black, 75, 77, 88. 

composition, 77. 

effects of, 78, 81-88, 277. 

green, 74, 77, 88. 

making, 75, 77. 
Thermos bottles, 117. 
Tomato, sauce, 136. 

soup, 213. 

soup, cream of, 273. 

Veals, 171-172. 
Vegetables, beets, 159. 

buying, 147. 

cabbage, scalloped, 142. 

canned, 140-141. 

carrots, 139. 

classification of, 143-145. 



324 



INDEX 



Vegetables — Continued 

composition of, 144. 

cooking, 146, 149, 158-159. 

corn pudding, 176. 

for children, 278. 

freshening, 147, 149-150. 

green vegetables, 149-151. 

in fireless cooker, 149. 

lettuce, 150-151. 

mild flavored, 158-159. 

mineral elements in, 146, 149, 
152, 299. 

onions, scalloped, 142. 

peas, creamed, 139. 

spinach, 151. 

squash, 158-159. 

strong flavored, 146, 149. 

turnips, creamed, 168. 
Vegetarianism, 186-187. 

Wafers, cheese, 79. 

Marguerites, 95. 

marshmallow, 74. 
Water, 30, 39, 41-45, 46, 152. 

classification of, 4. 



drinking, 43-44, 45, 280. 

hot-water systems, 119-120. 

mineral elements in, 299. 

necessity to body, 42-43. 

relation of surface to evapo- 
ration, 51. 

safe, for drinking, 45. 

stages in boihng, 32. 

uses in cooking, 30, 39, 42, 46, 
51. 
Weight and height, boys, 302. 

children, 301. 

girls, 303. 

men, 300. 

women, 300. 
Wheat, 130-131, 133. 

See also Flour. 
White sauce, medium, 129. 

thick, 132. 

thin, 142. 

Yeast, 21-24, 25-29, 221, 240- 
243, 246, 247, 248, 253. 
as a leavening agent, 221. 
cakes, 241-242. 



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